The Greek prepositions, studied from their original meanings as designations of space

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Presented to the
LIBRARY of the
UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO

by
Mrs. H. J. Cody

THE

GREEK PREPOSITIONS,

a

STUDIED FROM THEIR ORIGINAL MEANINGS
AS DESIGNATIONS OF SPACE.

BY
F. A. ADAMS, Pu. Ὁ.

It is of more importance to us to learn how the Greeks spoke than to
know what they said.—JELF.

NEW YORK:
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY,
1, 8, anv 5 BOND STREET,
1885.

ee ee τ τ ὕ...

LIBRARY

]
Τῇ
197

ΟΟΡΥΒΙΘΗΤ, 1885,
By D. APPLETON AND COMPANY.

INTRODUCTION.

Wuatever theory we adopt of the origin of lan-
guage, it is agreed by all scholars that its words are
derived largely from notions of things in space. This
book presents the results of a study of the Greek
Prepositions from the stand-point of that admission.

No class of words in the Greek is more important
than the Prepositions; and none are more imper-
fectly understood ; yet these are the words that, be-
yond all others, bear on their face the suggestions of
space. But the clew is soon lost that conducts from
these primary uses into the wide realm of thought,
of reasoning, of will, of passion, and life. And yet
such a clew there must be, connecting by real, though
subtle analogies, the primary meanings with all the
meanings which follow.

But learners of the Greek find no harder thing,
after passing the rudiments, than to fix in mind the
meanings of verbs compounded with prepositions.
The difficulty is natural, and on the whole creditable
to the intellect of the embarrassed student. He has
nothing but his memory to aid him; neither the Dic-

iv Introduction.

tionary nor the Grammar give instruction here—they
give only authority. The learner is left with few in-
citements to his power of discrimination and logical
deduction. The definitions in the Lexicons burden
his memory; they do not instruct him to find his
way. Even Treatises on the Greek Prepositions do
not evince any systematic endeavor to interpret the
prepositions through a logical deduction from their
primary meanings as designations of space. The
learner under these conditions naturally becomes in-
different ; for what he cannot do intelligently, he
becomes, after a time, willing not to do at all; and,
perhaps, in the end, he adds one to the number of
those who complain that they have spent much time
on the Greek with little profit.

To show that the picture here outlined is not too
highly colored, let a college graduate, who has done
well in his Greek, take, for example, the verb λείπειν ;
and, prefixing to it successively the prepositions ἀπὸ,
διὰ, ἐκ, ἐν, ἐπὶ, κατὰ, Tapa, ὑπὸ, let him form English
sentences that, if written in Greek, would require the
use of these prepositions respectively compounded
with the verb. His certain failure is the result of
many former defeats, where his natural inquisitive-
ness has not been encouraged and rewarded.

When he finds the verb μένειν compounded with
ava, With διὰ, ἐν and κατὰ, with περὶ and ὑπὸ, he
finds himself in a like difficulty. The adjectives
δῆλος, ἔκδηλος, ἔνδηλος, κατάδηλος, all contain the

Introduction. Vv

notion clear, with differences which forbid the use
of one for another. What are these differences ?
And through what lines of thought does the learner
come to see these differences, so that the knowledge
of them shall no longer depend on a burdened mem-
ory, but shall be a natural possession of his instructed
intelligence? The present work is an endeavor to
clear somewhat this seeming jungle of the Greek
Prepositions—to show that it is not a jungle, but a
garden, whose alleys and paths have become over-
grown through neglect, and lost to view. Or—to
speak without a figure—the object of this work is
contained by implication in the following Thesis:

The Greek Prepositions, suggestive primarily of
notions of space, show through all their uses such
analogy to the primary meanings as affords aids in-
dispensable to a satisfactory understanding of the lan-
guage.

The motive and object of the work, thus stated,
naturally lead to the question of its method. It be-
gins by analyzing the notions of space, and the notions
that accompany these in nature; it then seeks for the
analogues of these in human experience. Thus the
whole field of human life, of thought, passion, and
purpose, is laid open, and the Prepositions enter it in
their own right.

The store-house of facts used in the present study
is the language of the Greek Literature—the Greek
Language at its best. As the work is Psychological,

vi Introduction.

not Etymological, it does not discuss the origins of
words. It isnot the forms of the words, but the thought
that underlies them, that is here the object of search ;
not the changing fortunes through which a written
word has passed till it comes to the form in which we
have it in our hands; but what the word means now
that is in our hands, and how it comes to mean what
we know it does mean. As the prepositions primarily
denote relations of space, we have in these notions,
and others which these carry with them, a point of
departure—not a working hypothesis awaiting its
justification, but a basis of facts settled by common
consent; ἀνὰ primarily means wp, and κατὰ down;
ἐπὶ means primarily on or upon, and ὑπὸ means
under ; and so of the rest. In beginning at this point
we begin where the learner must begin; and where
he must stay till he learns to love the Greek, if he
ever comes to love it at all.

As the ideas of space and the notions these carry
with them were always present, it is reasonable to
believe that they were operative in the formation of
language from the first; that they served as land-
marks pointing out the paths along which human
speech should move. For reasons already suggested,
the present work does not enter this wide and at-
tractive field. It is written with the humbler aim of
aiding the students who are learning to read Greek,
and the teachers whose work is to instruct them.

This work makes no claim to be a complete

i
ee ee, ee ae eS a a ek ee

Introduction. Vil

treatise on the Greek Preposition. The author has
restricted himself to the presentation of the subject
in a single line of observation—omitting whatever
was not pertinent to his special object.

In this view he trustfully commends it to the
hospitable reception that will be readily accorded to
a thoughtful endeavor on new ground.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

OF SPACE, AND ITS SILENT TEACHINGS.

SECTION

Words of space applied to ideas of time

Applied to description, and to moral conduct

This extension springs from an instinct in humanity

Language limited and poor; imagination must supply its ἀ τος
The proper starting-point in treating the Prepositions .

The mode of study; deductive and inductive

CHAPTER II.
ἀνὰ AND κατά. UP AND DOWN.

The notion wp; its attendant notions, First, Second, Third,
Fourth . :

The notion down ; its atiendant stores Fin ἘΝ Recond Third,
Fourth. : : : :

These attendant notions sg! the penal of aiadys but cen in
nature .

CHAPTER ITI.
ἀνὰ AND kaTd& PRIMARILY ADVERBIAL.

Preposition and Adverb—their difference

Ava, up, and κατὰ, down, primarily Adverbial .

Κατὰ with the Genitive and with the Accusative, aiineteateds
Language limited compared with thought

50 οὐ ἢ WO τῷ =

11
12

x Contents.

CHAPTER IV.
ἀνὰ AND κατά. MEANINGS DERIVED FROM ANALOGY.

SECTION

Analogue of κατὰ in motion along the ground; in speech; in
judgment . . : 5 ae ἐδ τό Me eee
"Ava τὰς πόλεις, κατὰ τὰς πόλεις. : : 5 : 5 Agel:
᾿Ανὰ and κατὰ with numerals : : : : 3 ὃ 5 ue
᾿Ανὰ κράτος, κατὰ κράτος . 5 : : : A = τ Ὁ, ΟἹ

"AY ὅμιλον, καθ᾽ ὅμιλον. : Σ ὃ : ἢ 5 . 22, 23

CHAPTER V.

ἀνὰ AND κατὰ IN COMPOSITION.

᾿Ανάγεσθαι, κατάγεσθαι. : : : Ν : : . 24

᾿Ανάβασις, κατάβασις ; ἀνιέναι, καθιέναι. é 5 A Z . 26
᾿Ανακαίειν, κατακαίειν . : Ε : Ἴ é : ς . 26
Ανέχειν, κατέχειν ; ἀναπάυειν, καταπάνειν ὁ. ε : ἢ ΟὟ
᾿Αναμένειν, καταμένειν. : : 3 : - : 27, 28, 29
᾿Αναδέχεσθαι, καταδέχεσθαι, καταγιγνώσκειν. : . - 530,51
᾿Αναγνάμπτειν, ἀναπείθειν, ἀναχώρεϊν, ἀνατιθέναι, marks of upward
motion in each (Sec. 7). : : 5 : ; : ΕΊΣ
᾿Ανανεύειν, κατανεύειν ; ἀνασπᾶν, to pull down : ; : . 383
᾿Αναδεῖν, third mark of upward motion (7) . : : : . 84 “
Κατάρχειν, apparent contradiction reconciled : ; . 85, 36
Aéwy, to lack, catadéw . : A : : : : : 2 BT
Acixvivat, ἀναδεικνύναι, καταδεικνύναι . Se Ἃ : 3 . 88
Μανθάνειν, ἀναμανθάνειν, καταμανθάνειν. ᾿ : : : : 89
᾿Αναζητξιν, ἀναλύειν. 3 : : : : : . 40, 41
Kadopay ὦ 5 : : : : : - - : 2 42
Καταφαίνεσθαι, ἀναφαίνεσθαι, καταφανής. : : 4 . 48, 44
᾿Αναμιγνύναι, καταμιγνύναι . : : : ᾿ : . 45
Krelvew, κατακτείνειν, ἀποκτείνειν. 3 : : : - . 46
Θνήσκειν, καταθνήσκειν. : : εἰ ἈΠ

᾿Ανὰ and κατὰ, leading to the same τεῦ on different ὙΠ . 48

Contents. xi

CHAPTER VI.

ἐπὶ, ON, UPON.

SECTION
Primary suggestion; gravition ‘ 49
Transference of direction, change of power . : 50
Two forms of power suggested in ἐπὶ ; impact; pressure 51
Sphere of ἐπὶ enlarged by change of direction . ‘ OLS
Ἐπὶ with the Genitive; with the Dative . : " . δά, 55
Ἐπὶ with expressions of time 5 5 : ὅθ
General suggestion of power in ἐπὶ : a DM)
Object of ém pictured as lifeless, not necessarily lifeless i in fact 7158

CHAPTER VII.

ὑπὸ, UNDER; ACCESSORY NOTIONS.
Correlatives of ὑπὸ in space. : 59
Implications through gravitation . 4 ᾿ 5 5 = 608/61
Correlative of gravitation . 5 2 Ξ Ξ θ2
Cases following ὑπὸ. : 8 . 63
Position under ὑπὸ τ 5 5 64
Motion toward, ending in position under. 5 - 2 . 65
Motion from, beginning with position under. 66
Dynamic suggestions - 67
Ἐπ τ of the correlatives a an ae . : . 68, 69
Ἐπάγειν, ὑπάγειν, ὑπελαύνειν. : Ξ : ὃ a 3s Oil
Μένειν, ὑπομένειν, ἐπιμένειν. 2 δ δ - < 12
Ἐπιτιθέναι, ἐπέρχεσθαι, ἐπιέναι, ἐπιπίπτειν, ὑποφέρειν, ὑποδέχεσθαι,

ὑποφεύγειν : : : 73
ἩἩγεῖσθαι, ἐξηγ-, ὑφηγ-. : : ‘ = ; Ε .14, 75, 76

CHAPTER VIII.

πρὸς, TO, TOWARDS, NEAR TO, FACE TO FACE.

Πρὸς, primarily suggestive of human relations . : TS

Suggestion of reciprocity in πρός. : a : - eos

80

ΧΙ Contents.

SECTION
"Em ἀρετὴν, πρὸς ἀρετὴν, compared. 9 : . ὃ or
The object of πρὸς becomes to the imagination active . . 82-88
Ἐπὶ τὴν Ἑλλάδα, πρὸς τοὺς παῖδας . . ὃ 3 : ...89
ΤΠ 18:317 . - : Ὁ - : Cw)
Ἡ ὁδὸς ἐπ᾽ εὐδαιμονίαν ; ἐκ ἂν emails : : : ᾿ er) |
Πρὸς τὸ ἄλλο σῶμα, ἐπὶ τὸ ἄλλο σῶμα. 5 : : : . 92
Ἐπὶ τοὺς πολεμίους, πρὸς τοὺς πολεμίους . - . , : [98
Discriminations of ἐπὶ and πρὸς further illustrated : - 94-108

CHAPTER IX.
ἐπὶ AND πρὸς IN COMPOSITION.

"Eréxew, προσέχειν, illustrated, and tested . 5 ; 5 . 104
Applications of the above . A 5 3 - Ε Ξ . 105

Ἐπερωτᾶν, προσερωτᾶν, μιμνήσκειν, ἐπιμ- . , : . 106, 107
Ἐπὶ looking forward to what is yet to come. 3 > . 108
Ἐπὶ sometimes doing for the Greek mind what the pronoun ‘his
does for the English mind . . : c : . 109
Λανθάνεσθαι, ἐπιλανθάνεσθαι. : : : ὃ : 110, 111 112
Neve, ἐπινεύειν, κατανεύειν. β b ὃ ; : : . 158
᾿Αιτεῖν, ἐπαιτεῖν, προσαιτεῖν. 3 - : 5 3 : . 114
Ακούειν, ἐπακούειν, προσακούειν . ; 3 Ξ 5 . 115
Πέτομαι, ἐπιπέτομαι, idxew, ἐπιάχειν . : : ἔ = s L116
Aéw, to bind, émdéw, προσδὲιν . < : ; : : sue laly
"Evpnuei, ἐπευφημέιν ; λέγειν, ἐπιλέγειν . ἃ . ; 118..119
Σκέπτεσθαι, ἐπισκέπτεσθαι. : ὃ : : . 120
Πείθεσθαι, ἐπιπείθεσθαι ; διδόναι, ἐπιδιδόναι : : : 3 = 191
Γνάμπτειν, ἐπιγνάμπτειν, ἀναγνάμπτειν ; ἔρεσθαι, ἐπέρεσθαι. . 122
Στρέφειν, ἐπιστρέφειν ; δινεῖν, ἐπιδινεῖν.. : : : ὃ . 128
Ἐπιτυγχάνειν, κατατυγχάνειν, προστυγχάνειν : : : . 124
Δεικνύναι, ἐπιδεικνύναι. ἢ : : : - ; : . 125
᾿Εφιέναι, προσιέναι; ἐπάγειν, προσάγειν. : Ξ : : . 126

Ἐπιτάσσειν, προστάσσειν . : - : : a Ξ ΠῚ Ὁ

Contents. ;

CHAPTER X.
παρά.
With Genitive, Dative, Accusative

Implied superiority in its object .
Παρὰ, meaning against, explained in ee waits κατά

CHAPTER ΧΙ.
παρὰ IN COMPOSITION.

Literal application . A
Σκευή, σκευάζειν, mapack-, κατασκ-
Used in morals

Tlapareivew .

Παραγιγνώσκειν

᾿Αινεῖν, ἐπαινεῖν, παραινεῖν

CHAPTER XII.

ἀπὸ AND ἐκ. OFF FROM, OUT FROM.

xili

SECTION
. 128

. 129
. 180

~ 1Bie 189)

. 198
. 134

. 135, 186

Slat
. 188

The notions of from and out from, compared and illustrated from

the Greek . . Σ 5 3 é "| ὅ
Continued illustrations. ὃ
᾿Απὸ and ἐκ discriminated in facing escent

CHAPTER XIII.

ἀπὸ AND ἐκ IN COMPOSITION.

᾿Αποπίπτειν, ἐκπίπτειν. : : : : : :
᾿Αποδιδόναι, ἐκδιδόναι

᾿Αφικνεῖσθαι, ἐξικνεῖσθαι ἢ : : : ὃ .
Πειρᾶσθαι, ἀποπειρᾶσθαι : δ ; : :

Ἐκπειρᾶσθαι, ἀποτρέπεσθαι, ἐκτρέπεσθαι
᾿Αποδεικνύναι, ἐκδεικνύναι . : 4 3
Θνήσκειν, ἀποθνήσκειν, ἐκθνήσκειν.

. 189, 140

141-143
. 144

ΧΙΥ Contents.

SECTION
᾿Αποκτείνειν, κατακτείνειν . Ξ 4 . : . 152
τελεῖν, ἀποτελεῖν, ἐκτελεῖν. 5 : : . 153, 154

Ἐκφεύγειν, ἀποφεύγειν. : 5 . : : : ἃ . 155
᾿ἘἘξηγεῖσθαι, ἀφηγεῖσθαι. 4 . 8 : ὃ : . 156, 167
᾿Αποφαίνειν, ἐκφαίνειν . ; : c . 158
᾿Αποδιδόναι, ἐπιδιδόναι. : . 109, 100, 161

᾿Αποτελεῖν, ἐπιτελεῖν. 3 δ 3 A : . 162
᾿Απαιτεῖν, ἐπαιτεῖν 5 . 163
Neither the Greek, nor the English, isa Seca σα τὴν for ine oflier . 164
᾿Απὸ and ὑπὸ : : ; Σ : ᾿ 5 Α . 165

CHAPTER XIV.
€is AND ἐν.

’Fis, ἐν; these two prepositions linked with ἐκ by law of contrast. 166

’E:s, into ; its primitive and secondary uses . ᾿ : . 167, 168
Ἔτ-ς and ἐν; discrimination . 5 ὃ Ὁ : : : . 109
Ἐισβολή, ἐμβολεύς, ἐν τῷ εὐωνύμῳ, ἐπὶ τυ εὐωνύμου . . ΝΟΣ ΠῚ
Ἐμβάλλειν, ἐισβάλλειν; ἐμβολή, προσβολή. : : ‘ . 172
Ἐισβάλλειν, ἐμβάλλειν, continued : : ἢ 3 : . 178
Ἐμβιβάζειν, εἰσβιβάζειν, their difference. c : ; . 174
“Evdnaos, ἔκδηλος. : : : : : : 2 Tb 6 ay
᾿ἘἘκφανής, ἐμφανής : : : : : SALTS S17 1805} 151
Ἐκδεικνύναι, ἐνδεικνύναι Ξ 5 “ ᾿ . 182
Ἐγχειρεῖν and ἐπιχειρεῖν, canpaced deduetively : : : . 183
The deduction confirmed by usage ᾿ : 5 3 4 . 184 7
Tuyxdveww, ἐπιτυγχάνειν, ἐντυγχάνειν. : ᾿ : . 185

CHAPTER XV.
περὶ AND ὑπέρ. .

Followed by the Genitive . ; : : . - ; . 186
Followed by the Accusative . : . . . . . 187

Contents.

Περὶ followed by the Dative ; ὑπὲρ never; the reason .

Discrimination resulting from original suggestion in space .

Applied to a passage in Homer

CHAPTER XVI.
περὶ AND ὑπὲρ IN COMPOSITION.

Intensive force
Apparent contradictions
Περιμένειν, ἀναμένειν, καταμένειν.

Περιμένειν, changed to ἀναμ, used of the same ae ihe reason of

the change

CHAPTER XVII.

ARE PREPOSITIONS INTERCHANGEABLE? . : . δ

CHAPTER XVIII.
ἀμφί, ON BOTH SIDES OF, AROUND, ABOUT.

Its original meaning; compared with περὶ.

CHAPTER XIX.
πρό, BEFORE, IN FRONT OF.

Its original service
Πρὸ and jtp—their high service ethically

CHAPTER XX.
σὺν AND μετά. WITH, AMONG.

The discrimination illustrated . : ‘

XV

SECTION

. 188, 189

190, 191
. 192

. 193

ἐπ ΕΠ

. 196

. 101

. 198-201

. 202

. 203, 204

. 205

. 206-210

Xvi Contents.

CHAPTER XXI.

διὰ, THROUGH, ACROSS.

Its primary suggestion; wide field for the Genitive

Illustration of its use with the Genitive

Why διὰ is not followed by the Dative.

Διὰ with the Accusative

Criticism of the Lexicon on Il. 7: 247.

Illustrations of διὰ with the Accusative

Διὰ not always suggestive of the nearer and ἼΞΩΣ ile
Aew, προσαγγ-, etayy-, παραγγ-

Δέχεσθαι with διὰ, ἀνὰ, κατά

᾿Ανακρίνειν, διαγιγνώσκειν, διαφεύγειν. .

Διαχειρεῖν, ἐπιχειρεῖν, compared .

SECTION
Sura ΠῚ

. 212, 218

. 214
. 215
. 216

_ 217, 218
διαγγέ-

«1219
. 220
. 221
. 222

THE GREEK PREPOSITIONS.

CHAPTER I.
OF SPACE, AND ITS SILENT TEACHINGS.

1. Tue preponderance in language of words of
space gives them in usage rights which are not prima-
rily their own. As sight is the chief of our senses,
the things which are seen furnish the chief materials
in the formation of language. The discourse may
have passed quite away from the sphere of visible
things, but the speaker, none the less, borrows his
words from this old, exhaustless storehouse. We
speak of a space of time, a circle of years, of the
stream of time flowing past us, or bearing us along.

2. The language of space lends itself to morals:
an upright man, and an upright tower; a straight
story, and a straight stick, are phrases alike intelligi-
ble. When a preacher once said: “ Laban was a
crooked fellow, but, then, Jacob was not square in his
dealings with him,” he chose his words, not for their
beauty, but for their special fitness to his thought.

3. By these frequent references in language to

2 The Greek Prepositions.

space, and to objects in space, we need not think of
space through any definition by a physicist, or a meta-
physician, or in any labored way at all; but as felt
and realized, everywhere and always, by the unin-
structed and the unthinking. Every person who
grows from infancy to maturity comes silently into
possession of feelings about space and its objects to
which he may never give utterance—of which he may
even be unconscious. These feclings seem to have
no recognition, or very little, in the completed lan-
guage. But, in the formation of that language they
have a work to do; they shaped the speech, and, if
by wise and patient questioning we can find what
these feelings were, we make a gain in the study of
the language. It is not in poetry alone that “ more
is meant than meets the ear.” As sometimes we may
read between the lines of the printed page something
that does not meet the eye, so we may find under a
word meanings that seem alien, and sometimes con-
trary to its original import—as refracted light is
changed by the medium through which it passes, and
the ends it is made to serve.

4, Language does not, in strictness of speech, ex-
press thought, it only suggests. It is helpful, never
adequate—except in the names of abstract numbers,
and the terms of pure science. It requires in its
single words that the student use imagination and
reflection. Without these he may learn the Diction-
ary and the Grammar, but he will not understand.

Of Space, and τίς Silent Teachings. 3

As we have not the Greek feeling and instinct, we
must endeavor by reflection, by questioning our re-
sults, and by repeated trials, to gain for ourselves
something of the feeling which the Greeks had by
birthright.

5. In studying the Prepositions in this spirit, we
shall have no regard to alphabetical arrangement, nor
to the number of cases which the prepositions respect-
ively may govern. Nothing of this chance and
secondary sort will furnish the opening by which to
enter the field before us. We shall begin with the
simplest and broadest notion in Space which Nature
presents to human experience—the notion of wp and
down.

6. A note of explanation, as between the author
and the student or the critic, may be due here to aid
in a mutual understanding. In the derived meanings
of prepositions they are not allowed to dictate by vir-
tue of their suggestions in space. They point the
way, and raise the question—the forecasting question,
that is all. The answer in all cases comes from ex-
amining the usage as found in the authors.

Illustrative examples from Greek authors are often
abridged, or altered, for economy; preserving, how-
ever, unimpared, whatever is necessary to elucidate
the case in hand.

Ae The Greek Prepositions.

CHAPTER If.
ava AND κατά. UP AND DOWN.

7. Tue notion of simple motion upward gathers
to itself in human experience other notions, which
accompany it by a necessity of nature. rst, such
motion has a fixed place of departure, namely, the
surface of the earth. Secondly, the line of such mo-
tion is into the pathless air, following no prescribed
track, and leaving no trace behind it. Zhzrdly, such
motion is against a constant power in nature, there-
fore it requires force to produce it. ourthly, it will
stop of itself, at some undetermined point, and will
return.

In like manner, simple motion downward sug-
gests notions that go along with it. rst, such mo-
tion has no fixed, or definite, point of beginning.
Secondly, it is natural, requiring no force to effect it.
Thirdly, it has a fixed place of ending. Fourthly,
the downward moving body remains where it stops.

8. These notions are not fanciful, or theoretic.
They do not come from the reading of books, or
through study of any sort. They are given in the
common experience of human life; and every boy
big enough to throw a stone knows them as well as
a philosopher. In many minds they may never have
come into distinct consciousness; but they are, none
the less, there, doing their work; and, beyond a

Ava and κατά. Primarily Adverbial. 5

doubt, they have had a share in the formation of
every language in the world.

Our present study is to see what share they have
had in the formation of one small part of the Greek
language.

CHAPTER, ΠΙ|Ι.
ava AND κατά. PRIMARILY ADVERBIAL.

9. Tur grammatical term Adverb, when applied
to notions of space, is best explained by comparing it
with the term Preposition. This last word—from pra
pono—carries the suggestion that it is placed before
another word—that other word being a substantive or
pronoun. This phrase, preposition and noun, are at-
tached to the verb, the leading word in the sentence,
to complete its meaning in that place. But there is
another term, Adverb, that by its form shows that it
is the complement of the verb. What then is the
difference? On what ground may the same word be
in one place a Preposition, and in another place an
Adverb? It isan Adverb when the noun needed to
complete the sense is understood from the nature of
the case without being spoken. When we say, to drive
on, meaning to drive forward, we call on an adverb ;
but it may be made a preposition by pressing for its
covert meaning; it means, to drive on the ground

6 The Greek Prepositions.

before you. In the phrase to look around, we call
around an adverb; but if we say look around you,
it means the same, but we call around a preposition.
These examples show how these two parts of speech
trench on each other’s ground, and by what an easy
device one may sometimes be changed into the other.
The naming in these cases is less important than the
interpretation, for the last, if correct, will be sure to
lead to the first.

10. As designations of motion simply wp and
down, ava and κατὰ have only an adverbial force;
and they are no more than this in many expressions
of space where they are followed by a noun, and are
called prepositions. In the phrase, Holding a wreath
up on a golden staff, ἀνὰ σκήπτρῳ (Il. 1:15), the
preposition is adverbial, the Dative case being the
usual case to denote definite or fixed position. In
the phrases, ἀνὰ poov, up stream ; κατὰ poov, down
stream ; ἀνὰ κλίμακα, up stairs; κατὰ κλίμακα, down
stairs, the nouns appear as objects respectively of ava
and κατὰ ; but these words are still adverbial in force
—the accusative case being the natural case to express
the distance passed over.

11. In the expression, He sent the shaft, κατὰ
στῆθος, straight against the breast, the character of
the act helps us to the meaning as much as the prep-
osition ; κατὰ suggests a straight motion, as a stone
dropped in the air falls straight, and the accusative is
the usual case to mark the point where the action ter-

Ava and xara. Primarily Advertial. i

minates. So, to shoot an arrow, κατὰ σκοπόν, is to
send it straight against the mark ; it can not fail to
hit, and a machine might do this. The fact of straight
motion, terminated by the mark, exhausts all there is
in the expression. But the phrase, to shoot an arrow,
κατὰ σκοποῦ, does not mean straight against the mark ;
it means to shoot at it with the design to hit τέ. It
may hit, or it may miss, and still be sent, κατὰ σκοποῦ.
An engine can not do this, for it has no brains. He
who shoots, κατὰ σκοποῦ, will make allowance for the
fall of the arrow, that is, its deflexion by gravitation ;
and, for a side wind, if there be one. The Genitive
here is causative, showing the action of the mark on
the shooter, inciting to his endeavor. This makes the
phrase perfectly clear. It is not, as the Lexicon says:
Tofevew κατὰ σκοποῦ, “to shoot at, because the arrow
falls down upon its mark.” This is misleading. It
would imply that the end of the arrow’s motion was
the mark. This is not asserted. The end of the
arrow’s motion was the mark, if it was lucky enough
to hit it; if not, it was something else which it did hit.
The phrase suggests not the end of the arrow’s motion,
but the end of the shooter’s shooting, namely, to hit
the mark. So, in the words to pour water, κατὰ χειρός,
upon the hands, the pith of the phrase is not to show
the way the water runs on the hands, but to show how
the careful servant that had the water behaved to the
guest. If the water had been running on the hands
from a spout, κατὰ χειρός would not have been used.

8 The Greek Prepositions.

We have been led unawares into positive state-

ments about cases, and these statements may seem
᾿ dogmatic. They are not dogmatic at all. We have
simply accepted the hint of Nature, and following that
hint we find we have in hand just the phrase that
meets the case. The shaft sent κατὰ στῆθος, straight
to the breast, goes no whit straighter than a stone goes
when falling freely to the ground. The στῆθος is in
the line of the shaft’s motion through its whole course,
just as the point finally struck by the stone falling
freely is in the line of the stone’s motion through its
whole descent. We have here the direct object, and
of course in the accusative case.

The phrase would be just the same if the object
thus struck were not aimed at, or were not even seen.

But in aiming at a mark the object acts first on
him who throws, inciting and directing his act; it is
the point of departure, or cause or source of that in-
citement, and therefore must be in the genitive.

We should not encumber ourselves with the
thought that in actual experience things thrown up
are not commonly thrown straight up, and therefore

can not come straight down. This is pertinent in -

treating of projectiles; but the natural imagination
pictures wp and down as perpendicular.

He went on board, ava νηὸς ἔβη, not that ava with
the genitive means on; but, he went up, and the
thing calling forth and determining the action was
the ship.

ne

Tn ee ΝΕ. a ye ee

Ava and κατά. Meanings derived from Analogy. 9

12. If the students asks, Why dwell on discrimina-
tions in the thought that can not be expressed in
translation? It would be a sufficient answer, if there
were no other, to say: It is for this very reason they
are presented and pressed on the attention. This is
the way to escape from bondage to words; to learn
how to treat them as our servants and helpers, not
our masters. Thought is nimble, words are clumsy
and slow; the student should patiently learn the best
that these last can do as interpreters of the first.

CHAPTER IV.

13. ἀνὰ AND κατά. MEANINGS DERIVED FROM ANALOGY.

As objects naturally fall by the law of gravitation,
the actions of men, when performed according to their
proper law, have an analogy to motion downward,
and are often designated by the aid of the preposition
κατά. The proper law for a judge is to decide justly,
κατὰ δίκαιον. The proper law for a witness is to
testify truly, that is, κατ᾽ ἀλήθειαν. Cyrus saw that
the Greeks were conquering all before them, τὸ καθ᾽
autovs. The picture to the imagination is that of
Jalling on the enemy. To a Greek phalanx charging
the enemy in battle, the onward rush was as natural

as the falling of a stone; hence, to picture this in
2

10 The Greek Prepositions.

words, κατὰ is called on to do its part. Do not fail
to see the picture—more than a picture—a picture in
motion. Do not encumber your memory with the
formula that κατὰ sometimes means before. This
would hinder more than it would help. Take into
your thought the whole phrase, in this and in all like
cases; seize the picture it presents to the imagination ;
express this in the best English you can command,
and your work is done.

A high authority translates τὸ καθ᾽ αὐτούς, the part
over against them ; this has a show of careful literal-
ness, but the life and motion are all gone, good for
the posts of a gate-way, over against each other, but
poor for a battle. So much comes from misdirected
nicety, from looking at each word by itself, and try-
ing to make it do duty all alone.

Demosthenes says: ζῶμεν τὸ καθ᾽ ἡμᾶς adrous, let
us live in our own proper way; the way of Mara-
thon, and Salamis, and the noble times of the past,
when each man did his duty. Here is a picture of
motion along the path of a nation’s life and history.

14. Do not be startled if you find yourself using
up where the Greek has κατά, as in this: there is
no way over the mountain but κατὰ ταύτην τὴν ὁδόν,
by that road, along that road, or up that road, for
the road was up hill over the mountain. But because
that was the natural way, the Greeks made κατὰ serve
the turn, drawing it over from its original meaning
downward, to serve a sense quite its opposite. See

a ΤΡ.

ree

᾿Ανὰ and κατά. Meanings derived from Analogy. 11

Anab. 4:2, 8, Hearing the trumpet εὐθὺς ἵεντο ἄνω
κατὰ τὴν φανερὰν ὁδόν, they moved swiftly up along the
open road; the road led up hill, κατὰ points to the
fact that that was the natural road for travel. See also
4:6, 11, where κατὰ points to a road that led up-
ward. So, τοξεύειν κατὰ τινός does not mean to shoot
from above, but to shoot with the aim to hat, in what-
ever direction that may be; κατὰ here points to the
end in the actor’s purpose, just as primarily it points
~ to the end of motion in space.

15. As κατὰ is used to denote the natural way of
a thing, so it is used of the natural place or sphere of
one’s activity (Hdt.). The Egyptians are a singular
people; the women cultivate the fields, the men with-
in doors weave, ou ἄνδρες κατ᾽ dixovs ὑφαίνουσιν. War
is carried on by land, by sea, κατὰ γῆν, κατὰ θάλατταν ;
the men of our times, oi καθ᾽ ἡμᾶς ἄνθρωποι, that is,
the people whom we meet, come upon in our daily
life.

16. We will now place ἀνὰ and xara side by side.
We read (Il. 1:58), that for nine days arrows of
Apollo were sent into the army, ava στράτον. Each
of these arrows cut its own path in the air, made its
own flight, and found its own place to stop. These
are marks of upward motion—hence ava.

Under this experience of the divine displeasure,
the Greeks offer sacrifice; Agamemnon orders them
to make a lustration; and they toiled at this through-
out the army, ov τὰ πένοντο κατὰ στράτον (Il. 1 : 312-

~

12 The Greek Prepositions.

318). This cleansing was the predetermined end of
the command; there was no spot in the army that
was not embraced in the command. It has an analogy
to downward motion, as the shooting has an analogy
to upward motion. To exchange the prepositions
would destroy the picture in either case.

Hounds pursued the game through the woods,
χῶρον av ὕλήεντα ; they do not know their path, but
find or make it as they go—like a body thrown upward.

The horse-tamer compels the wild horses to go
along the road, καθ᾽ ὁδόν. The road is the known
way ;—the path of a body freely falling is known: it
is straight downward.

To stand up to a fight, ἵστασθαι ava μάχην,---ἀνὰ
is here doing its proper work; nothing is more un-
certain in its end than a fight, or more sure to call
forth at each moment of its progress the whole power
of the actor.

When Darius first made war against the Greeks
(Hdt. 6:48), he sent messengers into Greece, ava τὴν
“Ἑλλάδα, to demand earth and water. It was a new
country; they explored it as they went, and did not
know the end of their journey till they came to it—
like motion upward, tending to some undetermined
point of stopping; hence the preposition ava. But
when Xerxes, at a later day (Hdt. 7 : 1), was preparing
for his great invasion, he sent to his subject cities,
κατὰ πολείς, for their contribution of men and sup-
plies. These cities were known, and the demand was

᾿

᾽᾿Ανὰ and κατά. Meanings derived from Analogy. 18

in accordance with former usage. The same father
of history tells us that, when a King of Sparta dies,
the magistrates send messengers through Laconta—
their own country, well known, the journey com-
pletely determined beforehand, like the path of a
falling stone; therefore κατὰ Aaxovixny.

17. From the above cases we may discriminate
between the phrases ava τὰς πόλεις and κατὰ τὰς
πόλεις. The first suits the action of a traveler or
explorer, to whom the cities are not known before-
hand, and who does not find the end of his journey
till he comes to it. Such action is like upward mo-
tion—the end is not known beforehand. The second,
κατὰ Tao πόλεις, implies a knowledge of the cities
before they are visited; this is analogous to downward
motion, having its end predetermined. A stranger
traveling through all the rest of Greece, ava πᾶσαν
τὴν Ἑλλάδα (Hdt. 6:86, 1). Here are three things,
in this stranger’s journey, like upward motion; he
did not know his road, but found it as he went; he
did not know how far he should go, nor where he
should stop. Again (Hdt. 5: 102), the fugitives were
scattered, ἀνὰ τὰς πόλεις, each one going where he
pleased ; like immigrants coming into a new country
to seek new homes, each for himself. But—

“When wild war’s deadly blast is blown,
And gentle peace returning,”
then the soldiers return to their homes, κατ᾽ ὀίκους,
each one knows where he is going to stop.

14 The Greek Prepositions.

i8. If we have taken our steps wisely thus far,
we can now walk a little by our own light; and say
that, when William the Conquerer sent his officers
among the cities of England to find out their re-
sources, and so make up the Doomsday book, they
went ἀνὰ τὰς πόλεις ; but when afterwards the tax-
gatherers went through the cities, with all the re-
sources catalogued, they went κατὰ τὼς πόλεις.

In order to be very plain, let us suppose a case
from the drudgery of modern life. A messenger,
with printed notices in his hands of a popular enter-
tainment, is instructed to leave one at each house in
the town. There are many houses in the town—not
so many notices; what does he do? He distributes
them as far as they will go, that is, ava τὰς οἰκίας.
But on a subsequent day, with more notices than
there are houses, he can be ordered to distribute them,
κατὰ τὰς οἰκίας. In the first case the end of the dis-
tribution was not known beforehand, but was found
by coming to it—therefore ava; in the second instance
the end was determined beforehand—therefore xara.

These little words, ἀνὰ and κατὰ, can lend them-
selves to describe the joys and sorrows of childhood.
When, on a glad anniversary, all are in expectation
of gifts, and there are not enough of these to go
round, they can be distributed only ἀνὰ τὸυς πᾶιδας ;
a wiser love would have provided for a distribution
κατὰ τὸυς πᾶιδας, and then all would have rejoiced
together.

᾿Ανὰ and κατά. Meanings derived from Analogy. 15

19. Both ἀνὰ and κατὰ are used with numerals,
but with a diiference. “Ava is used when the nu-
meral denotes a group made up for that occasion only ;
κατὰ, when the numeral denotes a well-known group,
as a dozen, a score—the group being thought of as a
large unit. Luke 9:14, make them ‘sit down by
Jifties, ava πεντήκοντα, because the number fifty was
a group made up for that occasion only ; the limit of
the group was realized by counting—no one knew
where he belonged till he had been counted. But
in the Anab. we find groups of fifty formed under
different circumstances, and for a different end.
They were wanted for daily service, were officered
and named, and were handled like large units. These
acted κατὰ πεντηκοστῦς. Once being made up by
counting, ἀνὰ πεντήκοντα, they were afterwards
handled by their technical name, πεντηκοστύς.

We may say καθ᾽ ἕν, but not ava ἕν, for in think-
ing of one the end is not approached from the begin-
ning, but is contained in it; and so the Greek lan-
guage contains καθ᾽ ἕν, but not ava ev.

20. The phrases ava κράτος and Kata κράτος are
both used; and we are told by some authorities that
they may be used interchangeably, because wp and
down carry our thought over the same line. This is
mere groping; it neglects to note what is peculiar
to these motions respectively, and leads to grave errors
in translation. Free motion wpward diminishes in
speed till the last ounce of the impulse that sent the

16 The Greek Prepositions.

object is exhausted, and the motion ceases. Pre-
cisely analogous to this is motion along the ground,
as running, when the utmost effort is put forth at
each moment, without regard to the future. The
natural end of such running is the exhaustion of the |
runner, as the natural end of a stone’s motion thrown
upward is the exhaustion of the force that sent it.
This is not properly using the strength, but wasting
it. To run κατὰ κράτος is to run according to the
strength, to run as the runner can hold out. In a
race of a hundred yards one may start ἀνὰ κράτος,
but if he do this in running a mile, he will surely
be beaten, unless his competitors are as foolish as
himself. The rowers in a boat-race husband their
strength, knowing that they have a hard pull before
them; they row κατὰ κράτος ; but if they prosper,
and approach the end with plenty of reserved strength,
they may wish to show off, and finish with a spurt—
this last is ἀνὰ κράτος.

91. Let us now bring this distinction into the
light of a Greek narrative. On the day of the
battle of Cynaxa (Anab. 1:8) a messenger arrived,
riding at full speed, his horse bathed im sweat,
ἐλαύνων ava κράτος, ἱδρδυντι τῷ ἵππῳ. We cannot
miss the meaning of ἀνὰ κράτος here; the rider did
not spare his horse. Let us go on a little further in
the story. The Greeks broke the Persian array in
front of them—7d καθ᾽ ἁυτόυς, were thrown out of
line by rapid running, recovered themselves, and then

Ava and κατά. Meanings derived from Analogy. 17

—évtav0a—they began to pursue κατὰ κράτος, calling
out to each other not to run fast, μὴ θεῖν δρόμῳ, but
to keep their ranks. Here it is equally plain what
κατὰ κράτος means. They were to advance so as to
keep their line, and so as they could hold out. Sup-
pose now that these prepositions were interchanged ;
look at the picture; the messenger coming along
κατὰ κράτος, at a steady pace, such as his horse could
keep up all day; and the Greeks, once before thrown
into disorder by rapid running, repeating their mis-
take, as if they could not learn anything from their
own experience!

In another place, the barbarians, assaulted in their
strong hold, make their escape, fleeing ἀνὰ κράτος, in
disorder, each one for himself, and at his quickest, as
is the way of barbarians when retreating.

Let us look at another picture. Thucidides in-
forms us that, after the disaster at Syracuse, the
Athenians were greatly depressed, fearing that the
enemy would next bring the war into their territory
with all their power, κατὰ κράτος. A wise nation
going to war does not hurry. It plans, and com-
bines, and keeps the end ever in view—just as the
emphatic point of downward motion is its end. He
who acts ἀνὰ κράτος starts off at the top of his
strength, without regard to what comes after.

22. Kal’ ὅμιλον, av ὅμιλον, arnong, into, through
the crowd.

We have in Homer a story of a man who went

18 The Greck Prepositions.

καθ᾽ ὅμιλον, and of another man who, on the same
day, and into the same crowd, went ἀν᾽ ὅμιλον ; and
we are to examine, and see if the actions differed, so
as to invite and require the use of these prepositions
respectively (Il. 111}. The Trojans and the Greeks
made a truce, with the condition that Menelaus and
Paris should fight as champions for the two sides
respectively ; and thus decide the whole war.

Before the truce, however, on the same day, Paris
had come forward alone and challenged the bravest
of the Greeks to fight with him. Menelaus came
forth to meet him; this took away his courage, and
he slunk back again into the crowd of Trojans, αὖτις
καθ᾽ ὅμιλον ἔδυ 'Γρώων. Reproached for his cowardice
he rallied for the fight; the truce was made, and the
combatants met. Paris was worsted, was on the
point of being dragged away as a captive, when
Aphrodite rescued him, and carried him unseen to
his home; and Menelaus, supposing him to be among
the Trojans, went here and there among the crowd
to find him, av’ ὅμιλον ἐφοίτα él που ἐσαθρήσειεν (I).
3:36, 449).

23. Now let us compare these two actions, and
see what the preposition does in each case toward
completing the picture.

Paris goes, first, back to his own place, among the
Trojans (he had been out of his usual place). He
goes back as a stone, lifted out of its place, and left
free, goes back ; secondly, he went spontaneously, as

᾿Ανὰ and κατὰ in Composition. 19

a stone falls; thirdly, he went to stay, and would
have stayed if he could, as a stone lies where it falls.
We have then, in Paris’s action, three marks of down-
ward motion; and the Greek mind by instinct took
the preposition whose primary meaning was down.
Let us now look at the action of Menelaus. rst,
he went away from his natural place—he went from
the Grecian army, where he belonged, to the Trojan ;
secondly, he did not know how far he should go—he
was to go till he could find Paris; thirdly, he was
going to return. All these are characteristics of up-
ward motion (see 7, 8).

CECA TE RIV.
ava AND κατὰ IN COMPOSITION.

24. A ship sailing from a fixed place, the coast,
forth into the pathless sea, has an analogy to an ob-
ject sent up from the fixed surface of the earth into
the pathless air; this invites the employment of the
preposition ἀνά, and the action of the ship is denoted
by the word ἀνάγεσθαι.

By a like analogy, to sail from the pathless sea to
the fixed land is expressed by κατάγεσθαι. The Gre-
cian reader or hearer may never have seen a ship, or
stood by the sea-side; but he has a model of thought,

20 The Greek Prepositions.

in his experience from boyhood, when he threw stones
into the air, that prepares him to understand ἀνάγεσθαι
and κατάγεσθαι without dictionary or study, and with
a picturesqueness for which the English has no equiv-
alent — not for want of words, but for lack of the
quick imagination to interpret them. Language is so
poor in its resources that nimble thought borrows the
words wp and down, and makes them suggest motion
along the surface of the earth; but there is an analogy
that justifies the boldness.

25. When the Ten Thousand Greeks took service
under Cyrus, the Younger, the expedition was called
an ἀνάβασις, not because they went into a higher
country, but they went from their known home to
a region unknown. Their return home was, by a
like analogy, called κατάβασις. Thue. 6:16, To the
Olympic games J sent seven chariots, ἑπτὰ ἅρματα
καθῆκα ; the end of the sending was fixed and known,
like the end of free downward motion. It was the
city where, on the appointed day, the races were to
take place; the place of the games, and the roads
leading to it all well known. The races were subse-
quent, separated from the sending by intervening
time, and are not embraced in the verb καθῆκα.

᾿Ανιέναι, to release, from the bonds of sleep (Il. 2:
34), εὖτ᾽ ἄν σε μελίφρων ὕπνος avyn, when honeyed sleep
shall release thee. The man released—let up—from
sleep goes forth of his own free will. Also, to send
forth to the uncertain chances of battle (II. 20: 118),

"Ava and κατὰ in Composition. 21

ἀνῆκε Φοῖβος Απόλλων, Phabus Apollo hath sent him
forth. Note the uncertain issue of the action in both
cases.

26. Kalew, to burn, ἀνακαίειν, to begin to burn, to
kindle. In motion upward there is one fixed point,
and only one—the beginning. So, in a fire, there is
one thing fixed—the beginning; beyond this all is
uncertain, whether it will die out or become a con-
flagration ; κατακαίειν, to burn up, consume; the pict-
ure, to the Greek, was to burn till the burning came
to an end, for want of fuel; the English expression
suggests that the fuel has all gone up in flame.

27. ᾿Ανέχειν, to hold up, as τὰς χεῖρας, the hands, τὸ
φῶς, the light; ἀνέχεσθαι, mid, to hold one’s self up,
as against something that would overpower, or crush
—hence to sustain, bear, endure (Anab. 1 : 7, 4), ἂν δὲ
ταῦτα ἀνάσχησθε, if you can endure this—the noise
of their shouting, that is, if you can hold yourselves
up against it; κατέχειν, to hold down, hold fast, de-
tain ; (Il. 1ὅ : 186), if he shall keep me back against
my will, & μ᾿ ἀκέοντα καθήξει ; (Il. 11 : 702), These (the
horses) the king detained, ἄναξ τοὺς ἵππους κασχεθε =
κατεσχε. But ἀνέχειν has a meaning to restrain, to
check (Il. 28 : 426), avex’ ἵππους, check the horses
(Hdt. 1:42); πολλαχῆ ἄνισχον ἐμεωυτόν, 7 often
checked myself; how can ἀνὰ and κατὰ, so wide
asunder, lend themselves to meanings so near alike?
κατέχειν means to hold back from acting at all;
ἀνέχειν, to check an action already going on. When

29 The Greek Prepositions.

a thing, or a creature, is quite at rest, its natural state
is down, κατὰ (men and stones are here alike); and
to keep it from acting is to keep it where it is—that
is, down, κατέχειν. But when a creature acts, whether
man or beast, his acting becomes, for the time, his
natural state, and anything contrary or opposed to
this finds expression in ἀνὰ, the opposite of κατά.

28. Π]αύεσθαι, to pause; ἀναπαύεσθαι implies that
the suspended action will be resumed when the cause
that interrupted it shall be removed; as a falling
stone, if stopped, will fall again if the power that
stopped it is withdrawn. Homer says (II. 17: 550),
winter swspends the works of men, ἀνέπαυσε; the
works will go on again when spring returns. If the
stopping is final the verb is καταπαύειν.

29. Μένειν, to remain, ἀναμένειν, to remain for a
time, that is, till some transient ground for remaining
is taken away—to await, wait for, as to wait for the
day, avapéverv ἠῶ; ava suggests transiency, because
the power that holds up a thing from falling is nat-
urally thought of as transient; καταμένειν, to remain
permanently (Cyri. Insit. 1:4). His mother went
away, but Cyrus remained (xaréueve) and was edu-
cated there.

30. Δέχεσθαι, to receive; ἀναδέχεσθαι, to catch,
arrest something on its flight—as arrows upon a shield,
blows upon the body: καταδέχεσθαι, to receive per-
manently, as principles in the soul; banished citizens
to their homes ;—these are received to remain, as

᾿Ανὰ and κατὰ in Composition. 23

stones are received on the ground to remain—but
blows received on the shield, or on the body, do not
stay. IJ. 5:619, the shield cawght many a javelin,
ἀνεδέξατο. We may say, then, that when a company
of ball-players adopt rules for their playing, the verb
is xatadéyecPar—these rules are to be permanent;
but when in practice one of them catches the ball in
its flight, the verb is ἀναδέχεσθαι ;—the ball does not
remain up.

31. To know, yuyvackew; καταγυγνώσκειν, to know
what one has a special interest in knowing. The act
xatay always implies some standard of judgment al-
ready in the mind; and the result of the act is always
to place the object in a class. This is like downward
motion, tending to a preappointed end. ᾿Αναγυγνώσ-
xew (1) does not mean, as the Lexicon says, to know
well, know certainly ; (2) it does not denote a moral
judgment, which καταγ often does; (3) it suggests
difficulty of knowing, and in this fact it has an anology
with upward motion; (4) the knowledge it predicates
is pictured as springing from the shrewdness and wit
of the knower. The student who faithfully studies
the famous 47th Prop. in Euclid, and so knows it, has
not a knowledge expressed by ἀναγ.

32. As motion wp, ava, is contrary to nature, that
is, to the natural power of gravitation, and requires
force to effect it, actions which compel things, or per-
sons, contrary to their natural state, or bent, are de-
scribed by aid of this preposition. Zhe spear’s point

24 The Greek Prepositions.

was bent back, ἀνεγνάμφθη αἰχμή (1]. 8 : 848). UOn-
rolling the book, ἀναπτύξας τὸ βίβλιον (Η αἰ. 1 : 125).
᾿Αναπτύσσειν τὸ κέρας, to wheel back the wing (Anab.
1:10, 9). The natural state of the spear is to be
straight; that of the book, to be rolled up; that of
the wing of an army, to be in line. ᾿Αναπείθειν, to
persuade one against his natural bent; those who
could not be persuaded by arguments (λόγοις) were
won over by money, ἀνεπείθοντο χρήμασιν (Cyri. Inst.
7:5). Xerxes was at first indisposed to make war
against Greece, but Mardonius won him over, ἀνέ-
πεισε (Hdt. 7:6). “Avaywpéw, to go back. Going
back is opposed to the natural instinct, whether bodily
or mental. Men and beasts alike are constituted to
go forward. To make them go back requires force,
as truly as it does to stop a falling stone, or lift it
from the ground ;—hence avd.

7 take back, ἀνατίθεμαι, what I said before (Mem.
1:2, 44); a man’s natural bent is to stand to what he
has said.

33. Nevew, to nod; Hector’s crest nodded this
way and that, as he stood before his wife (II. 6 : 470);
κατανεύειν, to nod and thereby confirm, ending all
debate (Il. 1 : 514, 527, 558).

᾿Ανανεύειν, to nod upward, i. e., in refusal (Il. 6:
311). We moderns do not indicate efused by an up-
ward or backward motion of the head; perhaps the
Greeks did not, but used ava in its derived sense—
of resistance, opposition—which on second thought,

"Ava and κατὰ in Composition. 25

you will observe, amounts to the same thing, for re-
laxing the will lets the head fall forward—arousing
it in opposition throws the head back (see See. 7, 8).
In this way we may understand the phrase in Xen.
Convin., ch. 8, μάλα σεμνῶς ἀνασπάσας τὸ πρόσωπον,
pulling a long face ;---ἀνὰ suggests the constraint
used to draw the features into the desired expression,
though that was very different from drawing the
face up.

34. ᾿Αναδεῖν, to bind up, as twigs into a fagot, or
bundle ; flowers into a wreath, or chaplet. What is
there in such an action analogous to something in
upward motion? The force that overcomes resist-
ance: ava carries this suggestion, just as up does,
fortunately, in the English phrase to bind up, bind
up tight, the preposition wp serves the same purpose.
The band used in binding up the hair of women is
called ἀναδέσμη. Crowning the victors with garlands,
στεφάνοις avadav νικῶντας---ἃ5 if the garlands were
fillets for binding the hair. Καταδεῖν, to bind fast to
something fixed. Od. 14: 345, ἐμὲ κατέδησαν éicéd-
μῳ ἐνὶ νηὶ, they bound me fast in the well-benched
ship. A thing avadovpevov may be moved; not so a
thing καταδούμενον.

35. The compound κατάρχειν invites attention.
It seems to combine incompatible notions. How can
ἄρχειν, which means to begin, join to itself κατὰ,
which suggests finality? Kardpyew means to begin
an action which has been completed in thought before

26 The Greek Prepositions.

it is begun in act; as to begin a battle that has been
planned beforehand; to begin a public sacrifice, or
celebration, that is to proceed by a prescribed order.
The beginning of an action that has not been thought
out before is not expressed by κατάρχειν. Cyri. Inst.
1:4, 4, Cyrus, when a youth, would select out, ἐξῆρχεν,
those exercises in which he knew himself to be deti-
cient, and lead, κατῆρχεν, his associates through the
exercises—leaping on the horse, throwing the dart,
ete. The course of exercises was all in his mind
when he began—hence κατά.

Mem. 2:3, 11, If you wished to win over one of the
men of mark, so that, when he had an entertainment,
he should invite you, how would you act? J would
begin, κατάρχοιμι, by inviting him, when I had an
entertainment. The end was in view from the be-
ginning—hence κατά. Socrates began a song, ἦρχεν
ὠδῆς, there was no forethought called for, only
memory; therefore the simple verb is used. After-
wards he began his argument anew, xaripye; his
argument was directed at every step to reach the
forethought conclusion.

36. Whenever the end is mentally seen from the
beginning, then the beginning is naturally expressed
by κατάρχειν, whether it be beginning of a campaign
in war, or of a dinner with its prescribed courses ;
or of a publie celebration, or a school examination, or
a day’s work planned by the master, on the farm, or
in the shop.

"Ava and κατὰ in Comtposition. 27

37. Aéw, to want, to lack; καταδέιν, to come short
of a fixed standard (Hdt. 2:134). He left a pyramid
much smaller than his father’s, 7¢ lacked twenty feet,
εἴκοσι ποδῶν καταδέουσαν---κατὰ points to the pyra-
mid of Cheops—the greatest; and, hence, the ac-
cepted standard, to which other pyramids were to be
compared.

38. ᾿Ανὰδεικνύναι, to show by lifting up, or by
some equivalent token, as the opening of gates or
doors, that all may see—raising a concerted signal,
making proclamation: καταδεικνύναι, to discover and
make known some important truth or art, prized by
all as a possession (Hdt. 4:42). “ Necos was the first
who made known, καταδείξας, that Libya, Africa,
was surrounded by water, except...” So Columbus
was the first who showed, καταδείξας, that there was
a new world west of the Atlantic. In ancient times,
“the Carians were the first to show how, καταδείξαντες,
to bind crests upon their helmets” (Hdt. 1:171). In
modern times, Professor Morse was the first who
showed how, καταδείξας. to send word across the con-
tinent in a moment of time.

39. Μανθάνειν, to learn by inquiry; ἀναμ, to
search into to see what a thing contains. The Lex.,
to learn again, to inquire closely, is in error. The
word means neither the one nor the other of these.
When one examines an ore, without prepossession,
and finds successively the minerals it contains, his
finding is expressed by ἀναμανθάνειν ; but if, starting

28 The Greek Prepositions.

with the belief or hope that the ore contains gold, he
searches and finds that, his finding is expressed by
καταμανθάνειν.

Cyrus, fond of learning, was ever inquiring of
those about him how things were, ἀεὶ τοὺς παρόντας
avnpota—his questions had no settled aim—therefore
ava (Inst. 1: 4).

Helen says (Od. 4: 250), I recognized him and
questioned him, ἀνηρώτων. She questioned to find
out everything she could—therefore ava; the things
which she found were not in her mind till she found
them.

I learned, κατέμαθον, that he had poured poison
into your drink (Cyri. Inst). His learning answered
the one great question in his mind—it was matter of
life and death for his grandfather, therefore κατά.

The spies having learned, about the army, κατα-
μαθόντες ; this was the very object they were sent for ;
it brings the inquiry to an end, as the striking upon
the ground by a falling stone brings its motion to
an end.

Recognizing him, they kill him, καταμαθόντες
κτανέουσιν (Hdt.) The recognition brings the search
to an end; their purpose was to kill him when they
should recognize him.

When one travels aimlessly in a foreign land, he
learns many things—this is μανθάνειν. Another tray-
eler, going with prepared questions, finds the answers
to these questions; this is καταμανθάνειν.

᾿Ανὰ and κατὰ in Composition. 29

40. To search, tnréw; avafmTéw, to examine a
thing to see what one can find in it. Socrates (Apol.
ch. 2) says that his accusers charged him with search-
ing into everything under the earth, τὰ ὑπὸ γῆς ἅπαν-
τα ἀνεζητηκώς. What is the force of ava in this
sentence? It cannot denote wpward in space, for
searching ὑπὸ γῆς denotes motion downward not up-
ward. ᾿Ανὰ has here its derived meaning, suggestive
of indefiniteness in the result, as when a stone is
thrown upward, it cannot be known beforehand how
far it will go, so ἀναζητεῖν, to search without an idea
of what you may find.

If the student be willing for the sake of science
to accept a very lowly illustration of ἀναζητεῖν, let
him look at the early scavenger bending over a heap
of rubbish, hook in hand; or, rising to the dignity of
history (see Hdt. 1: 137), If the matter were searched
to the bottom, avatnredpeva, one of these things would
be discovered. ᾿Ανὰ in the above cases quite drops
its primary suggestion of space, and serves the im-
portant dynamic idea which is affiliated with it.

41. ᾿Αναλύειν, to set free, as (Od. 12 : 200) ἐμέ δ᾽ ἐκ
δεσμῶν ἀνέλυσαν, and they set me free from my
bonds; the result of this act was that he who had
been bound was now free to go as his own will
prompts—the will is as free as air. But to /et loose
the dogs upon the game is not ἀναλύειν, for dogs have
not free will. Zo undo the web, ἀναλύειν, the act
leaves the threads free and floating. Zo dissolve a

30 The Greek Prepositions.

body into its unknown elements, and so find what
those elements are; or—to take a live example—to
analyze dynamite, and find what it is made of.
Karadvew, to separate the known parts of a thing,
and so destroy the thing, as a bridge, the frame of a
house, a government.

42, The verb καθορᾶν is sometimes said to mean
the same as the simple verb ὁρᾶν, and it is said some-
times to mean to see clearly ; these statements are
misleading. It means to see what you are looking
for—what you have a special interest in seeing. If
one loses a jewel, and searches for it, he may see a
hundred other things, and ever so clearly; thus far
his seeing is expressed by the simple verb ὁρᾶν ;—
but, when he sees what he was looking for, it is
καθορᾶν."

Xerxes, looking towards the shore, surveyed his
land forces and his ships (Hdt. 8:44). Looking to-
wards, kabopay—it was in order to see, and thereby
determine the great question before him, that he or-
‘dered the survey.

The looking was indeed down, from the tower,
but this is not the emphatic thing in the action.

Κῦρος καθορᾷ τὸν βασιλέα, καὶ ἵετο ἐπ᾽ ἀυτόν,

1 Bven where the seeing is clear, the indispensable condition justi-
fying the use of κατὰ is that the seeing answers an important ques-
tion. In Romans 1:20, καθορᾶται, the invisible things of Him are
clearly seen, the secing answers the most important of all possible
questions,

"Ava and κατὰ in Composition. 31

Cyrus sees the king and rushed upon him (Anab.
1:9). He was looking for the king; the moment he
saw him, the action of looking for him ceased and
gave place to another. Here the looking or seeing
was not down, but κατὰ is called for none the less—
the seeing ended a question already in the seer’s
mind.

When those in front came upon the height and
saw the sea, a great shout arose; Katéiov τὴν Oar
array (Anab. 4:7, 21). Well might a shout arise at
this long-wished sight. Observe that a little before,
when the guide promises to lead them to a place
where they would see the sea, he uses the simple verb,
ὄψονται τὴν Oddattav—he had no longing for the
sizht—and so he did not need καθορᾶν to express his
thought.

They sent out scouts, to the right and left, and on
the hills, that, if anywhere they eat see anything,
im any direction, they should signal it; εἴ πού τί
ποθεν καθορῷεν σημάινοιεν ; they went eo the sole
purpose of seeing, therefore κατά.

It may be said that the looking in this case would
be a looking down, and that this is all that κατὰ means.
This is quite a mistake. Even if the looking were
down, that is not an essential point in the act; it was
what they should see and not how they should be
looking when they saw it, that was to determine their
future action. But it was by no means certain that
their looking would be down. If, when half way up

32 The Greek Prepositions.

the heights, they had seen the enemy on ground above
them, the action would be καθορᾶν, just as much as if
they had climbed to ground above the enemy, and
from there looked down upon them. See (14) κατὰ
ταύτην ὁδόν.

43. The Adjective καταφανής is sometimes said to
mean clearly in sight. This is misleading. If a
thing is καταφανής, it is in the mind—thought of,
desired, or feared—before it is seen. The clearness is
sufficient—and need be no more than suflicient—to
determine the identity of what is seen with what was
in the mind before. Anab. 1:6,1, The tracks of
horses appeared, épaivero; the sight was unlooked
for, therefore the simple verb is used. If they had
been looking for signs of the enemy, the verb would
have been καταφαίνεται.

Further on in the narrative (1:8, 8), as the battle
drew on, the gleam of spears was visible, here and
there, through the cloud of dust: visible, καταφανεῖς.
They were not in fact clearly seen, but they were just
what the Greeks were looking for—they were seen
clearly enough to settle the question that was in all
minds. The glimpse of the spears showed that the
battle was upon them.

44, A meteor appears, φαίνεται ; a comet foretold
and expected appears, catadaivera.

The day dawns—begins to appear—avadalverat.

45, Od. 4:41, They threw before the horses spelt,
and therewith mzxed white barley, ἀνέμιξαν ; a chance

᾿Ανὰ and κατὰ in Composition. 33

mixture, fulfilling no predetermined end, a little more
or less of either ingredient does not matter—therefore
ava. Anab. 7:2, 3, After a time they mixed with
the people in the cities, and made their home there—
κατεμίγνυντο. The mixing was final, securing the end
of peaceful living together.

Horses mingling in a race, ἀναμιγνύμενοι (Soph.
El. 715). Not a purposed mingling, but coming
about by chance, each horse doing his best—hence
ἀνά.

Il. 24: ὅ29, To whomsoever Zeus giveth a min-
gled lot, ᾧ μέν κ᾿ ἀμμίξας (καταμίξας) δοίη Ζεὺς ; the
divine allotments were all measured, placed, and
fixed in purpose before they passed into fact—hence
καταμ.

The mingled blossoms in the field are ἀναμυγνύμε-
vot; they come by chance, and each grows as it can;
but the same blossoms in the gardener’s bed, placed
for harmonious effect, are καταμυγνύμενοι. Stones of
all colors lying in a box, dvapiyvipevor; the same
stones cut and set in a Mosaic, καταμιγνύμενοι ; they
realize a picture that was complete in the artist’s mind
before he put his hand to the work.

46. Kreivew is from a root that means to strike, to
cut by striking—hence to kill ; κατακτείνειν, to strike
down, to strike dead, to kill, as in deadly conflict,
usually implying deadly purpose—not by accident,
nor in execution of the law. When death comes by
accident, τς end reached is not the end sought.

84 The Greek Prepositions.

In Anab. 4:85, 25, maida ἄκων κατακτανών, the
natural suggestion that the death was designed is
forestalled by the word ἄκων. When death comes
by sentence of the law, the end sought is not the
death but the vindication of the law—and the
verb is «τείνειν, sometimes ἀποκτείνειν ; but this
last carries a special suggestion, which will be
treated of in its place. Jl. 6:409, Soon the
Achaians will slay thee, cataxtavéovow. The kill-
ing would be in deadly conflict—it would be the
end sought.

But see Il. 15:587, Like a wild beast that hath
done some evil thing, having slain a dog or a herds-
man, κύνα κτείνας ἢ Bovxorov. The killing was not
in pursuit of an intelligent purpose —it was from
blind instinct.

Od. 16:106, Kataxrapevos, slain in my own halls ;
the death was purposed—it was the end sought in the
act—therefore κατακ.

Od. 12: 875, ‘Ov Bods ἔκταμεν ἡμεῖς, we had slain
his kine. The killing was not the end sought, it was
the means to the end—the booty—therefore we have
the simple verb.

Anab. 1:9, 6, Cyrus had a fight with a bear—he
suffered much, but at last he killed him, κατέκανε ;
he meant to kill the bear, and did what he meant.
It follows, therefore, if this view be correct, that no
irrational creature can do the act expressed by κατα-
κτείνειν, for no such creature can form an intelligent

eS ee ee

ree eee. eo

‘Ava and κατὰ in Composition. 35

purpose—a purpose limited and complete in thought
before it is begun in act.’

A single passage (Herod. 2:75) seems at first view
to conflict with this position; but it is, in fact, con-
firmatory of it. The story is that the Ibises do not
let the winged serpents pass by them and come into
the land, but kill them, κατακτείνειν. The Ibis was
regarded as divine; it was therefore raised above the
brute condition, and made capable of forming an in-
telligent purpose—therefore, of doing the act, κατα-
κτείνειν here is attributed to it.

47. Θνήσκειν, to die; καταθνήσκειν, to die at the
hands of one who purposes to kill—the outward act
fulfilling a purpose formed beforehand; to die not
by disease, nor by accident, nor by old age, nor by
sentence of the law. 1]. 22: 355, Hector dying, κατα-
θνήσκων, by the hands of Achilles, who meant to kill
him.

I]. 21: 106, Achilles to Lykaon, a suppliant, die

thou also, θάνε καὶ ot :—KdtOave καὶ Πάτροκλος
ἢ 5 ρ ᾽

1 Such, at least, seems to have been the Greek opinion, so far as I
have been able to gather it in reading. Perhaps the reading has been
defective; but I have preferred not to wait for an impossible leisure,
but note the point as possibly marking one of the hiding-places of
Greek thought.

In any case, the opinion here ventured invites no reference to
modern Biology; nor does it impair the honors of those rare creatures
of ancient story—companions of man—inspired or trained—

“Who bear a memory and a mind,
Raised far above the law of kind.”

80 The Greek Prepositions.

Patroklos also diced. Observe how vapid would be
the phrase if κατὰ were omitted here. It would
mean only that Patroklos died, as all men die, per-
haps in his bed. Note also how the imperative, θάνε,
asks no help from κατὰ ; the lifted arm told the pur-
pose (Il. 21 : 106, 107).

Il. 7:89, There is the tomb of a champion who
died in the days of old, whom glorious Hector slew ;
—died, κατατεθνηῶτος ; slew, κατέκτανε; κατὰ points
to the deadly conflict which made the fallen hero
worthy of a monumental tomb.

48. ᾿Ανὰ and κατὰ may serve to express the same
general idea through different pictures to the imagi-
nation. Xen. Cyr. 1:1, Δημοκρατίαι κατελύθησαν,
democracies have been overthrown ; ὀλιγαρχίαι avy-
ρηνται, oligarchies have been overthrown ;—the first
suggests the idea of a structure demolished; the sec-
ond, of a thing taken up and borne away; the idea
of destruction is virtually in both.

CHAPTER VI.
ἐπὶ, ON, UPON.

49. EvreryTutne is on, or wpon, something by force
of gravitation. When the object «pon which a thing
comes, or on which it rests, is named, we have a noun
in hand, which requires a preposition to introduce it,

Ἐπὶ, on, upon. 37

and show its relation to the words before it. This
preposition is él. The object on, or wpon which
motion is arrested, is put in the Accusative. To fall
on the ground, ἐπὶ τὸ δάπεδον, to seat one’s self upon
a throne, ἐπὶ θρόνον The picture to the thought is
that of power passing from the subject of the verb to
the object of the preposition. The primary power in
space is that of gravitation; its direction is perpen-
dicular; and impact, or pressure is its unvarying con-
comitant.

50. But not much of human power is spent in a
perpendicular direction. Men usually employ their
strength in movements along the surface of the earth,
and not in motions wp and down. We must there-
fore be ready to shift this path of power, if we would
find ἐπὶ fruitful with human uses, and from perpen-
dicular make it horizontal, whenever we find the lines
of action run in that direction.

51. Before doing this, however, we will note the
accompanying notions which ἐπὶ always carries with
it. First, the object which falls wpon another exerts
power upon it by impact—that is, by the accumulated
force of gravitation suddenly arrested. Secondly, the
object that rests wpon another continues to exert
power upon it by the continued force of gravitation
—in other words, by its own weight.

These are not ingenious statements, thought out
to help a theory; they simply state the facts. No
effort is put forth, no step is taken in the physical

98 The Greek Prepositions.

world where the power of gravitation does not go
along with it, aiding, guiding, or obstructing and de-
feating ;—and ἐπὶ is one of the witnesses in the Greek
language of this constant, inevitable power. Our
study is, first, to note the facts; and, then, to draw
all fair deductions from them.

52. If now we shift the direction of power, as we
proposed to do, and, instead of wp and down, make it
horizontal—along the level earth where living creat-
ures with man have their home—we do not thereby
dismiss ἐπὶ, the old witness of gravitation, but we
take it with us into this new field, and allot to it a
wider, and more varied service.

53. The power, ever at work or ready for work,
is not here the power of gravitation; but, in the
dumb creatures, it is the animal instincts and habits;
in man it is the whole range of the passions and as-
pirations, the hopes and fears that rule his life. But
in both spheres, brute and rational, émi carries the
suggestion of power of some sort, physical or mental ;
and the object of the preposition is in the Accusative.
They came to the river, ἐπὶ τὸν πόταμον, to cross it;
they came to the city, ἐπὶ τὴν πόλιν, to take it, or
enter it.

54. If the movement be a journey from a distant
place, carrying the suggestion of the purpose and
hope to reach, rather than of the realization, then
that distant object is in the Genitive: to sail for
Greece, ἐπ’ “Ἑλλάδος ; for home, ἐπ᾽ dixov; he began

Ἐπὶ, on, upon. 39

to lead them into line of battle, ὑφηγξυτο ἐπὶ φάλαγγος
- ἐπὶ with the Genitive, with a view to bring them
into.

The genitive here is causative, suggesting to the
imagination the thing which incites to the endeavor.

55. Rest, or position on, if fixed, or definite, is
expressed by the Dative—the flesh on spits, ἐπὶ
σχιζῇς : standing on the car, ἐπὶ τῷ δίφρῳ; if the
position is indefinite, somewhere upon, movably, or
transiently upon, ἐπὶ is followed by the Genitive ;—
sitting on the shore, ἐπ᾽ ἀκτῆς ; the men carry the
burdens on their heads, ἐπὶ τῶν κεφαλέων ; the enemy
are on the mountains, ἐπὶ τῶν ὀρῶν ; he danced on the
table, ἐπὶ τραπέζης ὀρχήσατο."

56. Time somewhere within which ἃ thing hap-
pens is expressed by the Genitive—émt Λέοντος βασι-
λεύοντος, some time in the reign of Leo.

57. Bearing in mind that whatever comes against
a thing horizontally, as well as what comes down on it
by gravitation, exerts power upon it, we are prepared
to see how first, and last, and all through, ἐπὶ is the
index of power passing from the subject to the object ;

1 The Genitive here helps to locate by suggesting some near, better
known thing; it is as the point of departure from the known to the
unknown; as in Geometry we determine the position of a point from
its relation to other points whose position is known; as in old English
Jock of the mill may discriminate from Jock of the hill.

In the above examples the shore (ἀκτῆς) is known; the persons
spoken of are located by referring to this known locality ; so of the
mountains, the table.

40 The Greek Prepositions.

as, he was sent ἐπὶ τὴν ἀρχήν, to his province, to rule
it; to go ἐπὶ τὰ ὅπλα, to their arms, to take them;
he went ἐπὶ τὴν θύραν, to the door, to open, or shut
it; they went ἐπὶ τὸ δεῖπνον, to their dinner, to eat
it; they went ἐπὶ τοὺς πολεμίους, against the enemy,
to assault them.

58. The object of él, commonly pictured as life-
less, may be in fact not lifeless, or passive ; but any
activity it may have will be derived from the nature
of the case, and will not be suggested by the phrase
where it is introduced by ἐπὶ.

The treatment of ἐπὶ is here suspended, to be re-
sumed in a comparison of it with prepositions which
follow.

CHAPTER VII.
ὑπὸ, UNDER; ACCESSORY NOTIONS.

59. Tur notion expressed by wnder, ὑπὸ, takes
along with it other notions which accompany it by a
necessity of nature and experience. First, of all it
carries the suggestion of its correlative on, or over,
ἐπὶ, or ὑπὲρ. Nothing can be under which has not
something on, wpon, or over it.

60. Secondly, this correlation of wnder with on,
or over, naturally suggests a comparison; that which
is wnder is thought of as inferior to that which is on,

Ὑπὸ, Under ; Accessory Notions. 41

or over it. Thirdly, that which is wnder is in a de-
gree withdrawn from the light. As light comes from
above, that which is wxder something must of .neces-
sity receive a less degree of light than that which is
over or upon it. It follows from this that ὑπὸ readily
lends itself to express the notions of retirement, con-
cealment, deceit.

61. That which is wader is naturally thought of
as.passive to the pressure of that which is wpon it—
sometimes subdued, crushed, destroyed by it; as, for
example: the blossom wnder the stone that is laid
upon it; the snail trodden under the foot of the ox.

62. But that which is wider has some power of
resistance—and this may become to the imagination
the leading feature of the picture ; as, Milo the athlete
stood under the weight of the full-grown ox. Here
the power of life countervails the downward pressure
of gravitation. But lifeless things may give the same
suggestion—as, for example: the post wnder the cor-
ner of the house supported the wall above it.

63. We will next look at the cases which ὑπὸ
governs ; these are just as many as the ways in which
the position wnder can be presented to our thought—
and these are three.

64. First, the position wnder, ὑπὸ, may be sug-
gested without regard to the coming into that posi-
tion, or the leaving of it. I]. 2:307, We were offering
hecatombs beneath a plane tree, ὑπὸ πλατανίστῳ ;
under the wall, i.e., near the wall, ὑπὸ τείχεϊ (I.

42 The Greek Prepositions.

21:277). These pictures, and those like them, nat-
urally take the dative case after ὑπὸ, as the case ex-
pressive of position. Sometimes the verb implies
motion, but the act looks forward to the position and
rest that shall follow; Il. 14:24, He shall place a
footstool for the feet—literally, wnder the feet, ὑπὸ
ποσίν.

The dative after ὑπὸ sometimes expresses the au-
thor, instrument, or agent; Od. 3: 304, δέδμητο δὲ
λαὸς ὑπὸ αὐτῷ, and the people were subdued under
him. 1]. 15: 637, ἐφόβηθεν ὑφ᾽ “Extops, they were
put in fear by Hector. Il. 11 : 121, Themselves also
were filled with fear before the Argives, im’ ᾿Ἀργείοισι.

65. Secondly, the position wnder, ὑπὸ, may be the
end of a motion in space ; as, ὑπὸ σπέος ἤλασε μῆλα,
he drove his flocks into the cave. This form of ex-
pression takes the accusative case after ὑπό.

As the dative after ὑπὸ is sometimes used with
verbs of motion, so the accusative after ὑπὸ sometimes
denotes position merely. I]. 2: 603, ᾿Αρκαδίαν ὑπὸ
Κυλλήνης ὄρος αἰπύ, Arcadia along under rugged
Cyllene. In such instances the objects are usually
large, inviting the mind to traverse space in thinking,
e. g., the earth, the air, the light.

66. The third and last form of connecting things
by the preposition ὑπὸ, is where the object of ὑπὸ is
the starting point of the motion (Od. 9 : 141), a spring
of clear water flowed out from a cave, ὑπὸ σπείους.
This form calls for the genitive case. II. 9: 248, to

ba

Ὑπὸ, Under ; Accessory Notions. 43

rescue the sons of the Achaians from the war-din
of the Trojans, ὑπὸ Τρώων ὀρυμαγδου ; ὑπὸ, from
under.

Motion into or under is followed by the genitive
in the phrase ἐγὼ τὸν μοχλόν ὑπὸ σποδοῦ ἤλασα
πολλῆς, 1 thrust the stake into the burning embers ;
the σποδός, embers, is not pictured as a unit, but as a
loose mass, affected by the stake only at the point where
the stake was thrust in—it is a partitive genitive.
So (Od. 11:52), he had not been buried beneath the
wide-wayed earth, ὑπὸ, any where beneath—six feet
of it was space enough

67. Ὑπὸ with the genitive suggests primarily the
prevalence of its object over some one else, as if that
other were prostrate under it. But it is used in gen-
eral to mark the agent of an action after passive verbs.
While primarily picturing, as it were, to the eye, the
victories and subjugations of war, its wide embrace
serves for actions the most kindly and beneficent.
Mem. 2:2, 3, Whom can we find more greatly bene-
fited by any than are children by parents? ὑπὸ
γονέων ;

68. These two prepositions, being correlative, in-
vite to some extent a treatment side by side, that
each may be seen in the light of the other: ἐφιέναι
χεῖρας τινὶ, to lay hands on one (Od. 20: 89); ὑφιέναι
θρῆνυν ποσίν, to place a footstool under one’s feet
(Π. 14 : 240).

Wine drives even the wise man to sing, ἐφέηκε

41 The Greek Prepositions.

(Od. 14: 464). Zo each dam he put its young to suck,
im’ ἔμβρυον ἧκεν ἑκάστῃ (Od. 9: 309). He hath sent
woes upon the Argives, ἐφῆκεν (Il. 1: 446). Sub-
mitting the body to pains, ὑφεῖσα (Kur. Med. 24).
Observe in the above example the suggestion of
power in ἐπὶ, and of subordination in ὑπὸ.

69. "Apyew, to be first in doing a thing; as to
lead is characteristic of a ruler, the word comes nat-
urally to mean to rule; ἐπάρχειν, to rule over—
exercise authority wpon a particular district; χώρας
ἐπάρχω πολλῆς, L rule over a large country (Xen. Cyr.
4:6, 2); ὑπάρχειν, to be first in an act thought of as
the cause or incentive to other acts—like a founda-
tion. Socrates (Mem. 2:3) is urging two alienated
brothers to love each other; ὁ és a great provision
Sor friendship, πρὸς φιλίαν μέγα ὑπάρχει, to be sprung
from the same parents.

This word is very appropriate in the criminations
and recriminations of those engaged in war—each
side charging the other with beginning the quarrel.
The word suggests the foundation in man’s fortune
and life—that on which the structure of character
rests.

It is used in expressing acts of kindness, where he
who begins by doing kind actions, ὑπάρχει εὖ ποιῶν,
receives the like in return. Anab. 2:3, 23, If any
one will begin with showing us kindness, ὑμᾶς εὖ
ποιῶν ὑπάρξῃ, We will not be outdone by hin, at least
to the extent of our power, in making kind returns.

Ὑπὸ, Under ; Accessory Notions. 45

But evil for evil is more common in history. Hdt.
1:5, 1 shall point out the one who began aggressions
against the Greeks, τὸν ὑπάρξαντα ἀδίκων ἔργων ἐς τοὺς
“Ἕλληνας. Hdt. 4:1, Darius wished to be revenged
on the Seythians, who, in days gone by, had invaded
Media and so began the quarrel, ὑπήρξαν ἀδικίης.
In like manner the French and the Chinese, in this
year of grace, 1884, are each charging the other with
beginning the wrong, ὑπάρξαι ἀδικίας.

τὸ. ᾿ἜἜ;“ πάγειν, ὑπάγειν (Hdt. 2:108), The multi-
tude whom he brought upon the land, ἐπηγάγετο ; to
bring war on a people, ἐπάγειν πόλεμον ; to bring on
woe, πῆμα, servitude, δουλείαν, ὑπάγειν ζυγὸν ὕππους,
to lead horses under the yoke. The end to be reached
is to have the horse wnder the yoke, i. e., harnessed to
the chariot—the leading is preparatory, and subor-
dinate—important only as a necessary condition to
thatend. This is analogous to ὑπὸ σπέος ἤλασε μῆλα,
where the end to be gained is to have the flock in the
cave—the driving is a necessary condition to that end.
In Xen. Venat. 4:4, we find ἄγειν τὰς κύνας, to take
the dogs out for exercise; the act is its own end; but
when the same act is subordinate to a further end,
namely, to find the game, we find ὑπαγειν τὰς κύνας
(4:5); but further, when they find the haunt of the
boar, they set the dogs forward to rouse him, ἐπάγειν
τὰς κύνας. The compound ὑπώγειν is also used to
present a picture analogous to the water running out
from the can, ὑπὸ σπείους ; ὕπαγε, away from before

40 The Greek Prepositions.

me! literally, away from wnder me! For, to a living
creature, motion forward against what is before him
is as natural as striking on what is under it is to a fall-
_ ing stone. “Ei and ὑπὸ play their parts in this
horizontal direction, as they did primarily in the per-
pendicular; motion against something is ἐπὶ, and
that which obstructs it is ὑπὸ. Il. 5: 885, He assailed
me with the might of a god, but my swift feet bore
me out of his reach, ὑπήνεικαν, literally, bore from
under. Anab. 3:4, 48, τοῖς μὲν ἔμπροσθεν ὑπάγειν
παρεκαλεύετο, He called on those before him to move
on, ὑπάγειν, i. e., to make room for those pressing on
behind them.

71. The English preposition wider does not bear
transference to this horizontal direction. We can
say “stand from under”; this suggests perpendicular
motion; but, if we change the line of motion in the
threatening object to horizontal, the Greek could say,
as before, ὑπάγετε, but the English preposition wnder
will no longer serve.

Matt. 13:44, He goeth and selleth all that he
hath, and buyeth that field; he goeth, ὑπάγει; the
emphatic point is the buying—the going is merely
preparatory; it helps the picture, but is not essential
to the thought—in grammatical form the two verbs
are co-ordinate, but in thought there is a clear sub-
ordination. More commonly the subordinate action
is expressed by the participle. Anab. 1:8, 15, Xeno-
phon riding up, so as to join Cyrus, asked him if he

4
SA

re Deng

Ὑπὸ, Under ; Accessory Notions. 41

would give any orders; riding up, ὑπελάσας. To
translate this riding up gently, or slowly, does not
commend itself—it does not suit the business of the
hour. To say that ὑπὸ here points to the fact of
Xenophon’s subordination in rank to Cyrus is need-
less—that goes without saying; it is inept moreover,
there being nothing in the story at this moment to

-eall for a reference to that fact. It seems to denote

simply the subordination of Xenophon’s act at the
time to the act of Cyrus—as a question for instruc-
tion is necessarily subordinate to the answer expected.

72. Μένειν, to remain, abide, wait; ὑπομένειν, to re-
main under, to bear, sustain, endure ; the actor is sta-
tionary, and acts as in resistance to a downward press-
ure. Od. 1: 410, οὐδ᾽ ὑπέμεινεν γνώμεναι, he did not
wait for us to know him—did not bear the pressure
of our inquires. Plato Epis, 7 bore bitter reproaches,
διαβολὰς δυσχερεῖς ὑπέμεινον. Epis. Heb., If ye en-
dure chastening, ὑπομένετε.

"Emipéverv, to remain on. Cyr. Inst. 1:4, The
horse stumbled upon his knees, and nearly threw
Cyrus over his head, yet he held on, ἐπέμεινεν.
When connected with rational acts ἐπὶ suggests the
ground or basis of the act, and points forward to the
result. The rain continued falling, ἔμενε πίπτων ;
Peter continued knocking, ἐπέμενε xpovov; Peter
had a motive and an object. The dog continued
barking, ἔμενε ; the creditor continued dunning his
debtors, ἐπέμενε. Od. 17: 275-277, Either do thou

48 The Greek Prepositions.

go, while I am left behind; or do thou remain,
ἐπίμεινον, and I will go; émt points to the purpose of
the action, which was in the minds of both.

Od. 11: 351, Let the stranger be patient, much as
he desires to return, and wait, ἐπίμεινον, until the
morrow, till I shall have filled the full measure of the
gift. The waiting is for an object in the mind of
the speaker—namely, to make up the full measure of
the gift. Had the waiting been a halt upon a march
to be resumed as a matter of course on the morrow,
the verb would not be ἐπιμ, but ἀναμ (see See. 7).

So, Il. 6:340, Wait, ἐπίμενον, till I put on my |
armor; ἐπὶ looks forward to the object to be gained
by waiting—namely, the putting on of the armor; it
is a note beforehand showing that there is an object
to be gained by waiting. It is therefore in the
thought a connective, and would have no right to be,
but for the phrase that follows. The preposition and
the following phrase are in fact correlatives. That
we cannot suggest this play of thought in a neat
English phrase is true here, as in countless other ex-
amples. But let us not refuse to learn the Greek
because we cannot always translate it exactly into
English.

73. If the conqueror puts the yoke wpon the con-
quered, ἐπιτιθέναι, the conquered bear at, ὑποφέρειν ;
if in battle one side moves wpon the other, ἐπιέναι,
ἐπέρχεσθαι, ἐπιπίπτειν, the other side hold the rela-
tion ὑπό, under. If they accept the assault, we say

Ὑπὸ, Under ; Accessory Notions. 49

ὑποδέχονται; if they flee from under it, ὑποφεύγου-
ow.

The study of ἐπὶ is suspended here to be resumed
in a comparison of it with the preposition πρός.

74. The compound ἐξηγεῖσθαι (see by anticipation
Prep. é«) suggests that the leading has its source in the
subject of the verb; ὑφηγεῖσθαι presents the leader
as subordinate to some other person, or power, or to
some ulterior object of his own; he leads as the
colonel under instructions leads his regiment into
battle; he leads as the hare leads the hounds; as the
fugitive leads his pursuer; as the pioneers, marking
out and clearing the road, lead the army.

Thue. 1:78, If you are determined to have war,
we will do our best to avenge ourselves on you, in
the way in which you set us an example, vpyynobe :
the threat of retaliation places the leading of the
enemy under a law, or condition—namely, that as
they did so it would be done to them. Their leading
is no longer free—it is not ἐξηγεῖσθαι, but is under
the shadow of this threat, which would tend to tem-
per and restrain it; it is ὑφηγεῖσθαι.

To draw them up in order for battle, ὑφηγεῖσθαι
(Anab. 6:5, 25)—t7o recognizes a subordination ; it
was an act preparatory to the inevitable battle before
them—like the leading out, ὑπάγειν, of the dogs pre-
paratory to a hunt.

Compare with this Hdt. 1: 151, They resolved in
common assembly to follow the Ionians, whatever

50 The Greek Prepositions.

way they should lead, ἐξηγέωνται ; here the Ionians
act from their own arbitrary choice; the other party
accept their action and conform their own to it.

Anab. 2:1,18, ὁ δὲ Κλέαρχος ταῦτα ὑφηγεῖτο,
now in this Clearchus was covertly trying to lead,
Φαλῖνος δέ ὑποστρέψας, but Phalinos evading, dex-
terously shunning—i7o, away from under.

Xen. Equest., The colt is trained to go before his
trainer, keeping the road. To go before is ἡγεῖσθαι,
but here the colt’s action is under control of his
trainer ; hence the verb is ὑφηγεῖσθαι.

75. It is not implied that he who leads, ὑφηγεῖται,
is necessarily the inferior of the two. Soph. El. 1502,
idnyod, lead the way, go first; this is said by Aegis-
thus to Orestes, in whose power he was, and at whose
hands he was soon to meet his death. It simply pro-
poses that Orestes lead the way in retiring from the
present scene—an act preparatory, and hence sub-
ordinate to the act which was soon to follow—his
swift coming death.

So the gods lead men, ὑφηγοῦνται, by suggestions
drawn from objects and creatures around them (Xen.
Cyri., Bk. 3); man’s reason and will are here pictured
as the great actors; no one is convinced against his
reason, or made good against his will.

46. Crito 16, Let us then rest our discussion,
Crito, and proceed to act in this way, since in this
way God is leading us, ἐπειδὴ ταύτῃ ὁ θεὸς ὑφηγεῖται.
The divine leading was through suggestions to the

Πρὸς, Zo, Towards, Near To, Face to Face. 51

reason, and the free will, which must at last, as
sovereign, decide the question of life and death. It
is just because that Socrates in this stress made the
sovereign choice to die that he is a monument for
remembrance and cheer, through the ages, for all
tried and tempted souls.

CHAPTER VIII.

πρὸς, TO, TOWARDS, NEAR TO, FACE TO FACE.

77. Frew things are more wearisome than to read -

about πρὸς in the Lexicon. There are endless exam-
ples, but no interpretation—no clew to guide the in-
quirer. It is said to mean motion to or motion from,
or rest in ὦ place, and many things besides. The only
resource is in guessing, and trying, till one’s common
sense tells him he has guessed right.

78. We shall prosper best in this study, if we
regard πρὸς as introducing us at once into human re-
lations. The prepositions ἀνὰ, κατὰ, ὑπὸ, and ἐπὶ, in
their primary meanings, may have a pretty wide range
of use without any reference to human beings. Not
so mpos, if our view is right. It presents, primarily,
the picture of one person facing another. It is the
servitor of communion between man and man—the
usher that introduces one soul to another; whence is

52 The Greek Prepositions.

rendered possible the family, society, the state." From
this first meaning πρὸς comes naturally to mean near
to, this being the relation in space of persons who
meet face to face.

79. When man meets his fellow man it is prima-
rily for converse, and implies a reciprocal action on
the part of the person met; πρὸς is the preposition
that connects the action with its personal object in
this form of human intercourse. "Emi presents its
living object as if it were lifeless; πρὸς, never—and
often it makes alive to the imagination what is, in it-
self, lifeless; this éa) never does. To say πρὸς Τρῶας
μάχεσθαι implies that the Trojans fight back; to
shoot πρὸς τεῖχος implies that the wall has something
to do—namely, to repulse the shafts thrown against
it; the wall is in fact the defensive armor of the city
—it was built to do the work of defense.

80. Πρὸς στῆθος βάλλειν, to shoot against the
breast, implies that the στῆθος makes, or may make,
some sort of response to the stroke of the dart. Both
shield and breastplate are there to aid in giving that
response. But, you may ask, might not one say in
this case ἐπὶ στῆθος βάλλειν Certainly he could, if

1 As the relations of persons very greatly surpass in interest the
relations of things, it has seemed truer, as well as easier, to think of
πρὸς from the start as subserving these higher relations. A different
supposition would not affect any important fact in the study—and
therefore invites no discussion here. For the derived meanings, be-
sides, in addition to, see Sec. 103.

Πρὸς, Zo, Towards, Near to, Face to Face. ὅϑ

he were pretty dull—just as a painter, if dull, may
put two objects into a picture and not harmonize
them. Πρὸς harmonizes the picture, it is a note be-
forehand, showing that the act is to have its issue in
some quality residing in the object of the preposi-
tion; or, to put it briefly, ἐπὶ στῆθος βάλλειν would
be quite proper, if you kill the man before you shoot
at him.

81. To attain to virtue, ἐπ᾿ ἀρετὴν, if you are think-
ing especially of the manly endeavor it costs; but if
you are thinking chiefly of the happiness it brings, πρὸς
ἀρετήν (Xen. Conviv., ch. 4). The discouraged soldiers
(Anab. 3:1) had no spirit to go to their arms, ἐπὶ τὰ
ὅπλα; No spirit to go on guard, πρὸς τὰς φυλακάς.
In going to their arms they went to do something,
namely, to take their arms; in going on guard they
did not go primarily to do anything; they were to
wait and watch till others should act, i. e., the enemy,
and call forth the watcher’s action in response—hence
πρός. To expose one fo the cold, πρὸς ψῦχος ; it is
the cold that acts on the man.

82. Not only is something of reciprocity uniformly
suggested by πρὸς, but in many cases the chief action
in a phrase is suggested to the imagination not in the
subject of the verb, but in the object of this preposi-
tion. It is hard for thee to kick against the pricks,
πρὸς κέντρα λακτίζειν. Here it is not the one who
kicks, but the thing kicked that, for the imagination,
does the chief work. In the realm of mechanics ac-

54 The Greek Prepositions.

tion and reaction are equal, but in the realm of feeling
they may be very different.

83. In the story of Ulysses in the cave (Od. IX),
the Cyclops, grasping two of the visitors, swung them
high and dashed them on the ground, ποτὶ (πρὸς) γαίῃ
κόπτε. Here the action, to the imagination, passes
quite over from the subject of the verb to the object
of πρός-- 7γοην what the two visitors did to the floor
to what the floor of the cave did to them—é« δ᾽
ἐγκέφαλος χαμάδις ῥέε.

84. Hector (Il. ὁ : 454) bewails the coming fate of
Andromache, that in her captivity she would weave,
πρὸς ἄλλης, at the command of another woman ; that
is, standing before her face and receiving commands ;
—it was not the weaving, but the domineering com-
mand that was in the husband’s thought. Anab. 5:
7,1, Xenophon says: “I hear that some one is ac-
cusing me of deceiving you: therefore hear me by
the Gods, πρὸς τῶν θεῶν "---πρὸς, an appeal to the
Gods as if standing face to face before them, who
will respond to his words with vengeance if he does
not speak the truth. 1]. 6: 524, 5, I hear bitter re-
proaches from the Trojans, wpos 'Τρώων, they reproach
me to my face. If the reproaches came to his ears
through a third party the Preposition would not be
πρός.

85. In the narrative from Od. ΙΧ we read that
Neptune shattered the ship, dashing it against the
rocks, πρὸς πέτρῃσι βαλών. The ship met the rocks

aed . Αν ;
ee διό τ nr. “A A

τα

Πρὸς, Zo, Towards, Near To, Face to Hace. 55

to its own hurt, therefore πρός. They leaned their
chariots against the walls, πρὸς éveTva—leaned them
that they might be supported—the walls reacted and
held what was leaned against them.

86. They fight against each other, πρὸς ἀλλήλους ;
for ἐπὶ forbids the reciprocation which ἀλλήλους al-
ways carries with it. There is one phrase, however,
ἐπ’ ἀλλήλοισι κέχυντο, they were heaped on one an-
other, where ἀλλήλοισι, always reciprocal in its sug-
gestion, is the object of ἐπὶ, which never lends itself
to the idea of reciprocation. What shall we say?
This, namely: that the Greek and the English trans-
lation each describes a common fact by a short phrase,
impossible to be taken literally (for those at the bot-
tom were not heaped upon others), but so suggestive
roughly of the fact that its inaccuracy is pardoned for |
its brevity’s sake.

87. The nymph Calypso (Od. V. 149) went to
Ulysses, ἐπ᾽ ’OSvcja—she went to do a work—to dis-
miss him: therefore ἐπὶ; had she gone for converse,
the preposition would have been πρὸς.

88. Near the above passage (v. 157) we read that
Ulysses gazed fixedly on the unplanted sea, πόντον ἐπ᾽
atpbyetov δερκέσκετο. He was hopeless, for he did
not even wipe his tears away—did not even look
around in hope of seeing some ship that might take
him on board. Had he been hopeful enough for
that, the preposition would have been πρὸς, suiting
the word to the mental state.

56 The Greek Prepositions.

89. But, it may be asked, did the Greeks think
of all this? Probably they thought nothing about it,
but spoke from habit—just as a well educated person
uses, in English, the words shall and will, correctly
from habit, while a foreigner learning English must
reflect. Just as little did Xenophon need to bethink
him of the distinction between ἐπὶ and πρὸς, when
he used them both, each in its place (Anab. 8 : 4).
Think, soldiers, you are on your way now for Greece,
to your children and your wives, ἐπὶ τὴν “Ἑλλάδα,
πρὸς τοὺς παῖδας καὶ τὰς γυναῖκας. The preposition
πρὸς here is alive with the picture of the soldier’s
return to his home—meeting those who meet him at
his door.

90. Achilles bewailed his friend, the slain Patro-
klus, placing his hands wpon his breast, ἐπὶ στήθεσσιν ;
if he had laid his hands upon the breast to find if the
heart was still beating, the preposition would have
been πρὸς (Il. 18 : 317).

91. The way to happiness, ἡ ὁδὸς ἐπ᾽ εὐδαιμονίαν,
also πρὸς εὐδαιμονίαν ; but the former, where happi-
ness is found at the end of a course of labor, or search 5
the latter, where it comes of itself, to one who refuses
to take pains about it (Mem. 11. 1).

92. Xenophon directs the horse-buyer to examine
first the feet of the horse he would buy; and then to
go to the rest of the body, πρὸς τὸ ἄλλο σῶμα. He had
nothing to do to the horse, but rather something to
receive—namely, an impression good, or bad, as he

Πρὸς, Zo, Towards, Near To, Face to Face. 5%

looked and examined. If Xenophon had been in-
structing the groom in his duties, and had told him,
when he had finished one part to go ἐο the rest of the
body, he would have said ἐπὶ τὸ ἄλλο σῶμα. Ob-
serve, in every case, ἐπὶ denotes some form of power
—if only the power involved in a steadfast gaze—
passing from the agent to the object; πρὸς suggests
some form of reciprocal action, or a susceptibility for
it, passing from the object to the agent.

93. To go against the enemy, ἐπὶ τοὺς πολεμίους ;
also πρὸς τοὺς moXeulovs—but, the former, when the
enemy are at a distance, are at rest, or are retreating
—that is, are pictured as passive to the attack; the
latter, when the assailants have come so near to the
enemy as to stimulate them to face about and fight
- back (Cyr. Inst. 1: 4).

94. When (Il. VI) Hector met Andromache at
the Scean gate, the nurse held the child on her breast,
ἐπὶ κόλπῳ; a burden, a charge resting on the nurse ;
but when afterward the father—

“ Stretched his fond arms to clasp the lovely boy,

The babe clung crying to his nurse’s breast,” πρὸς κόλπον,
for shelter, safety, solace, from the nurse.

95. Lest thou dash thy foot against a stone (Matt.
4:6). The thoughtful student will now be able to
determine whether it is ἐπὶ λίθον, or πρὸς λίθον, by
asking himself, which was specially affected by the
blow—the foot, or the stone? Which did the prin-
cipal act ᾿

58 The Greek Prepositions.

Great stones which were rolled off the precipice,
fell upon the rocks, and were dashed in fragments.
Upon the rocks, is it ἐπί τὰς πέτρας, or πρὸς Tas
πέτρας ? (Anab. 4: 2, 3).

If thou shall not watch I will come on thee, ἐπί σε
(Rey. 3: 3)—the object is to inflict punishment, hence
ἐπί. But in the same chapter we read: I stand at
the door, and knock; if any man hear my voice, and
open the door, Z will come in to him, ἐλεύσομαι πρὸς
αὐτόν. The object is communion ; the visitor and the
receiver are sharers in a common joy (Rey. 3:3, 20).

96. How shall I say: “I am going to the fire” ?
You may say εἶμι ἐπὶ τὸ πῦρ, or εἶμι πρὸς τὸ πῦρ, ac-
cording to what your object is in going; if you go
to warm yourself, it will be πρὸς τὸ wip; if you go
to stir the fire, it will be ἐπὶ τὸ πῦρ.

97. When a fire breaks out in a city, great num-
bers come together—in two classes—firemen and spec-
tators; the one class come ἐπὶ τὸ πῦρ, the other πρὸς
τὸ mop—though neither class come either to warm
themselves or to stir the fire ;—but one class come to
act upon the fire, the other to receive an impression
from it.

98. If at breakfast you break your egg by striking
your knife on the egg, the Greek preposition for on
is ἐπὶ; if you break it by striking the egg on the
edge of your glass, the Greek preposition is πρός.
You tread on a flower, ἐπὶ ; you tread on a nail, πρός.
These examples are not arbitrary dictations; they .

Ty
ζι

Πρὸς, Zo, Towards, Near To, Face to Face. 59

are direct deductions, and are confirmed by all the
usage.

Anab. 1:8, They struck with the shields upon the
Spears, Tals ἀσπίσι πρὸς τὰ δόρατα ἐδούπησαν ; they
did not wish to do anything to the spears, but to call
forth a sound from them, to frighten the enemies’
horses. A little farther on we read, Cyrus saw the
king (καθορᾷ) and rushed upon him, ἵετο ἐπ᾽ αὐτόν.
It need not be said that πρὸς could not be used to
describe this action.

If one strikes upon a bell with a hammer to mark
it, or to break it, the word for wpon is ἐπὶ; if he
strikes upon it to call forth its tone, the word for
upon is πρός.

99. In New Testament (Matt. 7 : 24), of the house
built wpon the rock, ἐπὶ τὴν πέτραν, we read “the
winds blew and beat upon that house,” προσέπεσον
τῃ οἰκίᾳ éxeivy—the point being to mark what resist-
ance the house made to the assault ;—therefore πρὸς,
not ἐπί.

100. Xen. Oecon. 7: 23, God, methinks, has pre-
pared the nature of woman for works and cares with-
in doors, ἐπὶ ἔργα καὶ ἐπιμελήματα ; for he made her
with a body and spirit less strong against cold and
heat, πρὸς plyn καὶ θάλπη :---ἐπὶ introduces things to
be done; zpos, things to be endured. The object of
ἐπὶ is the passive recipient of the action; the object
of πρὸς is the door of the action.

101. They encamped on the sea-shore, near the

00 The Greek Prepositions.

harbor, ἐπὶ τὸν ἀυγιαλὸν πρὸς TO Apert; ἐπὶ with gen.
indefinitely upon—somewhere on, mpos with dat. near.

Note here how each of the prepositions has its
own special meaning, which cannot be expressed by
the other. ’Emt is primarily the servitor of gravita-
tion ;—it pictures downward motion arrested. Sec-
ondarily, therefore, it serves all motions that are
natural in their place, and thus have an analogy to
downward motion. Now, an army marching toward
the sea is stopped at the shore as surely as a falling
stone is stopped by the earth on which it strikes.
IIpés could not carry this suggestion; nor could ἐπὶ
serve the turn of zpos. The thing which moves on,
ἐπὶ, does not stop till it strikes; it cannot denote
merely near to. In the expression: “ Behold I stand
at the door, ἐπὶ τὴν θύραν, and knock,” the preposition
and noun, along with the verb, does not of itself give
the picture of impact, but it is pregnant with that
notion, and the notion is made explicit by the added
words καὶ κρούω.

102. In the implied converse of two persons, sug-
gested by πρὸς, we observe that there is no impact,
nor contact ;—the parties introduced by zpos are only
near to each other; hence this preposition comes to
express the idea of nearness; πρὸς τῇ γῇ ναυμαχεῖν,
the ships fought near the land (Thue. 7:34). When,
however, Xenophon says (Hell. 4:8, 1), αἱ πρὸς θαλ-
λάττῃ πόλεις, he does not mean cities near the sea,
but on the sea: why then did he not use ἐπὶ ὃ Be-

ἰὼ...

Ἐπὶ and πρὸς in Composition. 61

cause the cities did not act on the sea, but received
from the sea their supplies—the reciprocal action is
the leading idea.

103. We observe again that, in the implied con-
verse suggested by πρὸς, the parties are thought of as
on equal terms. They are in the relation, then, that
prepares them to be counted, or added ;—not fractions
only, but all things in the world must be brought to
a common denominator before they can be counted
or added. The preposition πρός, therefore, carries in
its own right the meaning besides, in addition to ;—
an idea which no other preposition properly has or
ean have, not even ἐπὶ, whatever the Lexicons may
say. That which is on (ἐπὶ) something is not in the
same plane with it in thought, any more than it is γι
space. See note at page 190.

CHAPTER IX.
ἐπὶ AND πρὸς IN COMPOSITION.

104. *Ezréyeu τί τιν’, to hold something upon some-
thing—as, the hand on the sword-hilt, τὴν χεῖρα κώπῃ.
He holds it there to draw the sword, therefore ἐπὶ;
but if, with the sword drawn, he holds his fingers to
the edge to test its keenness, the preposition for to
would be πρός. The holding may be in the way of
restraint ; this will put the second object in the Geni-

62 The Greck Prepositions.

tive, ἐπέχειν tov δρόμου, to cease from running, lit-
erally, zo hold on, that is, on the ground where you
are. Let us now pass to πρόσεχειν.

The Persians beseiged Barca nine months, mining
underground, as well as fighting above. A wise man
discovered their secret work in this way: He laid a
brazen shield on the ground, προσέσχε ἀσπίδα πρὸς
τὸ δάπεδον (Hdt. 4: 200), and applied his ear; wherever
there was digging going on underneath, he would per-
ceive it by the murmur of the shield. Here is no
suggestion of power from the man to the ground, but
rather the other way—he waited for something to
come from the ground through the shield to him;
therefore προσέχειν, not ἐπέχειν.

105. We can apply the hand to the door to open
at, we can apply the ear to the door ¢o listen; in the
one case the verb is ἐπέχειν, in the other, it is προσ-
éyew. The physician puts his hand upon an artery
to stop the circulation, ἐπέχει τὴν χεῖρα ; or, to feel the
pulse, προσέχει τὴν χεῖρα.

100. Hdt. 1:53, Croesus sent gifts to the shrine,
and thereupon asked for a response, ἐπειρώτα--ἐπὶ
points to the ground on which he asked—namely, the
gifts he had sent.

107. Socrates being asked, ἐρωτώμενος, said, etc.,
and being asked further, mpocep@pevos, he replied
(Mem. 1:3, 9). Jf 7 shall need any more instruc-
tion, ἤν τε προσδέομαι, my grandfather well teach me
[en it], ἐπιδιδάξει (Xen. Cyri. 1 : 3), ἐπὶ refers to the

Mali ie ee ON a Oe Lae ΤΉ ΡΝ

Laat

ΘΝ παν τοι ἀν hire beige

a

Ἐπὶ and πρὸς in Composition. 63

need, as the basis or ground of having more instruc-
tion.

Zeus bethought him, μνήσατο, of Aegisthus, whom
Orestes slew; and thinking of him, ἐπιμνησθείς, he
said ...: when the verb is used the second time, it
takes on ἐπὶ; this shows what it was in Aegisthus
that Zeus was thinking of—namely, how he had been
slain. When the verb was used the first time, that
fact had not been mentioned, therefore ἐπὶ would
have been unintelligible; to omit it in the second in-
stance would render the phrase vapid—it would show
that the poet had lost himself, and could not follow
up his own thought.

108. Ἐπὶ sometimes looks forward to a phrase
immediately following that justifies and requires its
use. Xen. Conviv. 4:4, All states inguire of the
gods what they must do, ἐπερωτῶσι τοὺς θεοὺς τί χρὴ
movew ; ἐπὶ points forward to τί χρὴ ποιξιν as deter-
mining the matter on which they inquire. This will
be made clear if we change the form of the sentence
without altering the sense, thus: we do not know
what we must do; let ws inquire of the gods, émepo-
τῶμεν τοὺς θεούς. Here the ἐπὶ plainly looks back to
the ignorance expressed in the words just before, as
the basis of the inquiry; just as plainly does it look
forward in the phrase in its first form. Again (Xen.
Mem. 1:5), Let us consider, whether he helped them
any towards this by discoursing as follows, ἐπισκε-
ψώμεθα, εἴ τι προυβίβαζε λέγων us ταύτην τοιάδε;

64 The Greek Prepositions.

ἐπὶ points forward to the matter they were to con-
sider.

109. Again (Xen. Mem. 2:1, 7), Since you know
the proper rank of each of these classes, have you ever
considered this, ἤδη ποτ᾽ ἐπεσκέψω, eis ποτέραν, ete.,
into which of these classes you might fitly place your-
self? Ἐπὶ points forward to the thought in the fol-
lowing phrase; just as the word ¢Azs in the translation
looks forward to the phrase which follows, and serves,
therefore, in thought, to connect the two parts of the
sentence; ἐπὶ does for the Greek mind just what this
does less neatly for the English mind. Does any one
think that this is forced and fanciful—a queer sort of
. equation—to make a preposition just equal to a pro-
noun, so that sometimes one may be substituted for
the other? If one thinks so, he is more particular
than the Greeks themselves, for they did this very
thing. Read again (Mem. 1:2, 10), Βούλεν οὖν καὶ
τοῦτο σκεψώμεθα, πότεροι. Then, if you will, let us
consider this, whether, ete. Here we have the equa-
tion before us, drawn from the same page: σκέψασθαι
TOUTO; πότεροι = ἐπισκέψασθαι εἰς ποτέραν.

Heb. 12:15, ἐπὶσκοποῦντες μή τις ὑστερῶν...»
looking (ἐπὶ) to it. This is the exact form of the
thought in the Greek, ἐπὶ looks forward to what is in
the next phrase.’

11t does not follow that “looking to it” is the best possible trans-
lation, for the bit of phrase ¢o ἐΐ has lost cast a little—has become too
colloquial for the seriousness and dignity of this place. Not every

PAS ον.

Ἐπὶ and πρὸς in Composition. 65

So in Il. 2: 198, dv ἐφέυροι βοῶντα, ἐπὶ looks to
the action expressed by βοῶντα as its basis. He did
not go about aimless till by chance he met some one
brawling; but he heard a brawling first, and then
went for it; ἐπὶ fixes the perspective of the picture.

Oyri. Inst. 1:3, ᾿Ἐπελέλησθε παντάπασι, σύ τε ort
βασιλεὺς ἢσθα, oite ἄλλοι OTL σὺ ἄρχων. You had
forgotten yourselves altogether—thou, that thou wast
king, and they, that thou wast their ruler. "Ei in
the verb looks forward to what is stated afterwards—
namely, their difference of rank. This they ought
not to have forgotten; the fact of self-forgetfulness
was not general, but limited to one particular thing,
and ἐπὶ points to that.

110. Socrates says, in opening his defense: I know
not, Athenians, how you were affected by my ac-
eusers; but, for my part, I almost forgot my position
here, ἐπελαθόμην, ἐπὶ points to the fact that Socrates
was there to answer for his life. That fact was in all

translation that is the most literal is therefore the best. The most
literal may have gathered associations by use that unfit it for the ser-
vice required—like a messenger stained and soiled by hard travel,
and so unfit for presentation. We cannot counterweigh a Greek word
or phrase by an English word or phrase, and call that translation, be-
cause it is literal. The Greek must first be dissolved in the alembic
of thought, and that thought then cast into the-best form which the
English allows. So, in the instance above, of ἐπισκοποῦντες, the com-
mon version, looking diligently, may be thought the best possible, un-
less the revisors’ looking carefully be thought better, though the Greek
does not properly mean either dilligently or carefully.

o4 rere:

Sy eee

66 The Greek Prepositions.

minds, and that made the forgetfulness of it note-
worthy. To say in translating, almost forgot myself
is inadequate ;* to say scarcely recognized myself is
worse, for it amounts only to saying, “they did not
draw a true picture of me” ;—and it misses entirely
the characteristic humor and pathos.

111. Cyri. Inst. 1:4, And Cyrus learned readily
all that had been taught him (about rough ground) ;
but when he saw the deer he rushed forward, érAa-
θόμενος πάντα, forgetting everything about it; ἐπὶ
refers to the cautions he had received about rough
ground ; it does for the Greek mind just what is done
for the English mind by the added words about 7.
One is the English way, the other the Greek way of
doing the same thing (Od. 19:18). I have laid up
the weapons, lest when heated with wine you quarrel,
and shame the feast, for iron itself draws ᾧ man
thereto, ἐφέλκεται.

112. When Kebriones, the charioteer of Hector,
fell, struck by a stone from Patroclus (Il. 16 : 775), he
lay stretched at his length, ald his skill forgotten,
λελασμένος ἱπποσυνάων ; it was the forgetfulness of
death—his work done, all ties sundered, all side issues
brought to an end—hence the simple verb. But in

1 The English mind may be satisfied to say forgot myself (so trained
by habit is it at supplying deficiences); and perhaps this is the best
we can do in English; but the Greek does more—it supplies by ἐπὶ the
limitation which the English phrase leaves the reader to supply with.
out saying it.

Ἐπὶ and πρὸς in Contposition. 67

Lucian’s Dial., “ Aphrodite and Eros,” Helios is com-
plained of as ἐπιλελησμένον τῆς ἱππασίας, forgetting
his duty as charioteer ; it was a forgetting of some-
thing he was bound to remember—hence emt point-
ing to the particular thing in which he forgot him-
self.

113. Ἐπὶ may suggest what is gracious and assur-
ing. Il. 1:528, The son of Kronos spake, and nodded
his dark brow, ἐπένευσε ; he nodded in confirmation
of his word that had just been given. Observe, that
this was the famous nod where all Olympus was
shaken—token of irreversible decree, whose proper
word is κατανεύειν. Why then not κατανεύειν here?
Because that went without saying; it had been said
and settled that the nod, when given, should be of
that sort. If then we may throw off κατὰ, why not
throw off ἐπὶ, using the simple &vevae? Because that
would leave the word afloat, and all it signified. “Et
knits the act into the web of the story, showing its
relation with what goes before. An ancient critic
has said that Homer was sometimes drowsy, and
nodded. However that may be, he certainly was not
drowsy here; he said just what he meant.

The gay woman who came to Hercules in his
doubts (Mem. 2:1, 22), as she approached him, κατα-
σκοπεῖσθαι θαμὰ ἑαυτήν, often surveyed herself—Kata
denoting the perfect repose she felt when looking at
herself; ἐπισκοπεῖν δὲ καὶ εἴ τις ἄλλος αὐτὴν θεᾶται,
and she often looked also to see if any other was ob-

68 The Greek Prepositions.

serving her; ἐπὶ looks forward to the following
phrase, as expressing the thing she was looking for.

114. Zo ask, beg, αἰτεῖν ; to demand, that is, to
ask on the basis of some ground or reason that justi-
fies the asking, ἐπαυτεῖν. Oecd. Tyr. 14:16, ὧν ἐπαι-
τεῖς, ἐπὶ refers to the ground of the demand—the
king’s extreme need. Il. 23: 593, εἴ κεν ἄλλο μεῖζον
ἐπαυτήσειας. If you should even ask another, greater
thing—éeri, to satisfy your just claims. Προσαίιτξιν,
to ask m addition (Anab. 1:3, 21). The soldiers
asked for an increase of pay."

115. ᾿Επακούειν, to hear, not about something,
which would be ἀκούειν περί τινος, nor from some
one, which would be ἀκούειν ἀπὸ, ἐκ, παρά Twos;
but to hear, on the ground of some fact with which
the hearing has a natural connection. Hdt. 2:70,
The crocodile hearing the noise (of the squealing pig)
makes for the noise, but coming across the bait he
swallows it down, and they haul him in; hearing

1 In Liddel and Scott’s Lexicon there is attributed to each of these
compounds (ἐπαιτήσειας misprinted ἀπαιτήσειας) a meaning that be-
longs to the other; as if they had crossed tracks, and each was doing
duty in the other’s field. The passages referred to in illustration dis-
prove the definition offered. Il. 23: 593, Xen. Vict. 4: 39, In no case
does πρὸς denote “for a purpose”; in no case does ἐπὶ denote simply
“more, besides.” If ever so rendered, it is a cheap device of transla-
tion, as a resource in meeting an acknowledged difficulty, but is not an
accurate picture of the thought. In 1], 23: 593, ἐπὶ means for your
satisfaction ; but this phrase is too heavy to be admitted in transla
tion; we must think it without saying it.

Ἐπὶ and πρὸς in Composition. 69

émraxovoas—why émi? Because the hearing was in a
natural relation with another fact stated just before ;
namely, that they belabored the pig, and made him
squeal. Xen. Hist. Greec. 3:4, 1, προσακούσας δὲ καὶ
τοῦτο, and hearing this also besides—in addition to
other things mentioned before.

116. And, even as he spake, forth jlew, ἐπέπτατο,
on the right a bird of mighty wing, and the host of
the Achaians shouted thereat, ἐπίαχον (Il. 18 : 821--
822). Why not ἔπτατοξ Because the flying forth
of the eagle was thought of as in response to—based
upon—what had gone before. Why not ἴαχον Be-
cause the shout was called forth by the omen, as if
based upon it.

117. ᾿Επιδεῖν, to bind upon—not, however, to a
fixed object, which would require κατὰ ; but, for ex-
ample, to bind crests on the helmets, ἐπὶ τὰ κράνεα
λόφους ἐπιδέιν (Hdt. 1: 171).

IIposdéw, to bind loosely, leaving distance between
the objects connected, as the bait to the fishing-pole
by the intervening line; the flail to its staff, by the
slack, flexible thong (Hdt.).

118. The priest made his prayer to the king; then
all the Achaians shouted approval, ἐπευφήμησαν (Il.
1:22)—the preposition points to what it was that
ealled forth the shout—a shout, and at the same time
a seconding of the prayer; it knits the phrases, other-
wise disjointed, into an organic unity of thought.

119. 70 say, λέγειν ; ἐπιλέγειν, to say on the basis

70 The Greek Prepositions.

of some fact that invites the saying. Cyrus would
send a gift to a friend, instructing the bearer to say
in explanation, ἐπιλέγειν (Anab. 1:9). Also (Cyri.
Instit. 1:3), ἐπιλέγων τὰ ἐκάστῳ, saying to each one—
ἐπὶ, in explanation.

120. Socrates says to Glaucon (Mem. 3:6, 5):
“You have doubtless examined, ἔσκεψαι, the public
resources, in order that,” ete. Indeed, said Glaucon,
7 have not examined them in that light, οὐκ ἐπέσκεμ-
μαι---ἐπὶ refers to the particular limitation Socrates
had set to the examination by the phrase “in order
that,” ete.

121. “Os φὰτο Πάτροκλος δὲ φίλῳ ἐπεπείθεθ᾽
ἑταίρῳ. Thus he spoke; and Patroclus obeyed his
dear friend’s word; more fully, obeyed his dear
friend tn w&—in the matter—émi referring to what
had been said. New Testament, What man is there
of you, whom, if his son ask bread, well he give him
a stone, λίθον ἐπιδώσει aitw; will give him, ἐπὶ, for
his asking.

122. 1]. 1: 569, Zeus uttered his threat, and Hera
feared, bending her heart to his will, émuvyvapryaca
φίλον κῆρ. Compare ἀναγνάμπτειν (Sec. 28).

Anab. 7:4, 9, And Seuthes asked, #pero: ‘ would
you even be willing to die for this one?” Then,
after an answer had been given, we read ἐπήρετο ὁ
Σεύθης, Seuthes asked thereupon. This would usually
be translated, Sewthes asked further, as if ἐπὶ here
denoted simply the addition of a second question ;

ΣΝ

Ἔπὶ and πρὸς 7: Composition. 71

this is not the thought—the thought is that the sec-
ond question is made on the basis of the answer to
the first. Ἔσπὶ never suggests the addition of things
which are co-ordinate—that is the office of πρὸς. It
may be excusable to translate ἐπήρετο by asked further,
but that is not strict; it is a concession for the sake
of a smoother phrase.

123. Menelaus in fight with Paris (Il. 3: 369),
springing upon him (ἐπαΐξας), caught him by his
horse-hair crest, and turning around (ἐπιστρέψας), be-
gan to drag him in among the well-greaved Achaians.
In the first participle ἐπὶ looks to the object of the
action (Eng. upon); in the second it means more dis-
tantly the same; we translate it turning round ;
literally it means turning upon, i. e., turning toward,
so as to face those to whom he was about to drag his
victim. Farther on in the same story, when the hel-
met strap had broken and the helmet was free in his
hand, Menelaus, ἐπιδινήσας, swinging it around for
a throw, slung it away among the Achaians. Let us
drop the ἐπὶ, and find the simple δινεῖν in another
place. Od. 9: 884, when Odysseus and his party had
to do with the Cyclops Polyphemus, he says (Odys.
9: 382): My companions, taking up the burning stake
thrust it into his eye, and I, standing above, turned
it about, édiveov: here the verb denotes the main ac-
tion, and is simple. But look forward in the same
story (v. 5388), when the Cyclops took up a huge stone,
swinging ἐξ around, ἐπιδινήσας ; ἐπὶ for the throw.

12 The Greek Prepositions.

124. We read in Herodotus that a smith, in dig-
ging a well many feet below the ground, came upon
ὦ cofin, ἐπέτυχε σορῷῃε: Had he found water, that
would have called for the verb κατέτυχεν, for else-
where Herodotus tells us of a physician, who, after
trying many medicines on his patient, at last Ait on
the right thing, and effected a cure, κατέτυχεν. 7
came upon by chance, ἐπέτυχον ; something happened
to me, προσέτυχεν.

125. Δεικνύναι, to show, point out an object; ému-
δεικνύναι, to exhibit, i. e., having the object already in
view, to proceed and point out its qualities—as to
explain a machine, an invention. Such a showing is
an ἐπίδειξις. It shows what there is 7m or belonging
to a thing.

126. “Eduévat, to send upon, or against, or on the
basis of some fact that justifies the sending. The
simple verb tévas takes two objects—an accusative
and a dative. 1]. 18:182, τίς γάρ ce θεῶν ἐμὸν ἄγγε-
λον ἧκεν, Who of the gods sent you as messenger to
me? Therefore ἐπὶ, compounded with ἱέναι, has
something else to do than govern the dative case of
a person. Let us see (Il. 24: 117), ἐγὼ Πριάμῳ ἐφήσω,
LI will sent Iris to Priam, ἐπὶ, on this matter—the
matter being the condition of the slain Hector’s body,
and the restoration of it to his friends. The matter
to which ἐπὶ refers is found in what precedes it; and
connects the actor in his precedent state with the
action which follows.

Ἐπὶ and πρὸς 7, Composition. 73

IIpoctévat, to allow to come, to admit (Anab. 4:
55), Lhey did not admit to the fire, ὁν προσίεσαν πρὸς
τὸ πῦρ, those who came late. They came as to a
privilege, not to do something, but to receive—hence
πρὸς τὸ πῦρ, not ἐπὶ τὸ πῦρ. To let or send dogs
upon the game, ἐφιέναι, for their instinct determines
their action, as gravity determines the motion of a
stone; to send one forth to battle, ἀνιέναι, for free
will acts, and chance has scope, as in the throwing up
of a stone.

Cyri. Inst. 1: 3, “Having the honor to introduce,
mposayew, petitioners to the king,” to receive some-
thing from the king, not to do anything to him.

"Exrdyev, to bring upon, implying force; Vesp.
310, ἔπαγε γνάθον, lay your jaws to it, that is, to the
food, to crush it. But to bring one jaw ἐο the other
in shutting the mouth, προσάγειν, because the action
is reciprocal ; each jaw as it acts on the other is at
the same time acted on by it. Hdt. 2:68, The croco-
dile moves the upper jaw to the lower, τὴν ἄνω γνάθον
προσάγει TH KATO.

Anab. 3:4, Xenophon riding up to Chirisophus,
προσελάσας ; the two were equals, and met for dis-
cussion ; but see Sec. 71, where ὑπελάσας suggests
subordination.

127. ᾿Επιτάσσειν, προστάσσειν.

The definitions of these words in the Lexicon seem
very near alike—indeed, they are both used to ex-
press the idea of injunction, command. The proper

14 The Greek Prepositions.

discrimination will be best made in the light of the
original suggestions of the two prepositions respect-
ively. "Ezl presents its object as passive, making
no response to the action (Sec. 45); if the action,
therefore, be that of giving a command, émitaccew
will imply that the person receiving the command
does not pause to consider whether he shall obey or
not—he obeys, of course; προστάσσειν, on the con-
trary, implies that the person receiving the command
responds by a free choice whether to obey or dis-
obey. If a command is disobeyed, the word to ex-
press the giving of it is naturally προστάσσειν, in
order to harmonize by anticipation the word with the
completed thought. See this distinction illustrated
in Hdt. 1: 114, 115, where both compounds are used
in describing how the boys played at choosing a king ;
where in the little mimic kingdom to give a com-
mand in the faith that it will be readily accepted
and obeyed is προστάσσειν ; but if one is recusant
the command takes towards him a sharper tone—it is
ἐπιτάσσειν. See also Xen. Occ. 7:7, When God has
enjoined, ἐπέταξεν, the harder, out-door life on men,
and has allotted, mpocéraéev, the easier, in-door life
to women; as if the former—the hard service—would
be avoided, if it might be; while the latter, from its
milder conditions, invites and obtains the response of
a willing acceptance.

ee ge aoe EF ESEOLOW EA DEAD ERD Es BME

᾿

Ilapa. 1

CHAPTER X.
παρά.

198. Ilapa, by, beside, is used with the Gen., the
Dat., or the Acc. With the Genitive, meaning from
beside, drawing his sword, παρὰ μηροῦ, from his side,
literally, from beside his thigh; with the Dat., denot-
ing situation beside—they were playing, παρὰ ρηγμῖνι
θαλάσσης, beside the sea-shore; with the Acc., de-
noting to the side of; they seated themselves beside
Menelaus, παρὰ Μενέλαον.

129. We shall best grasp the meaning of this prep-
osition if we think of its use in the sphere of living
beings, whose natural movement is forward, and who
have a right side, and a left. Two persons walking
beside each other make the situation that invites the
use of this preposition; Gorgias 472, C, Let us com-
pare our views together, παῤ ἀλλήλους, and see whether.
The picture is that of two persons moving forward
side by side, to reach, if possible, a common conclusion.

He went, παρὰ βασιλέα, to the king, so as to be by

him, subject to his orders: he came from the king,

mapa βασιλέως, bearing his orders, responsible to him;
he lives, παρὰ Σωφρονίσκῳ, with Sophroniscus. It
does not admit the idea of hostility like ἐπὶ; nor that
of mutual converse between equals, like πρός. The
parties are unequal, and the object of the preposition
is naturally the superior of the two, as it should be,

EE Ft SS ee a ee

76 The Greek Prepositions.

for it is fitting that the superior should abide in his
place, and the inferior should go and come; even
Sophroniscus, the householder, has in that fact a mark
of superiority over him who transiently is found at his
house. The suggestion of superiority does not come
from the preposition, but resides in the nature of the
things or persons introduced. Sometimes the object
of παρὰ is the inferior of the two things introduced.
Men compared with other creatures, παρὰ adda ζῶα,
are as gods compared with men. The primitive way
of comparing things with each other is by placing
them side by side. This mode of comparison is sug-
gested in Hdt. 3:160. No one surpassed Zopyrus
in the estimation of Darius, παρὰ Δαρείῳ κρυτῇ; 1. 8.»
standing beside Darius as judge. This does not mean,
as the Lexicon implies, that the judge is acting offi-
cially ; but only as every man is a judge of his fellow
man when he forms and holds an opinion about him.
This essential relation of the parties or things under-
lies all the uses; and shows with what modifications
the so-called English equivalents must be taken.

130. The word against, admitted in the Lexicon
as a translation of παρὰ, should be strictly guarded ;
mapa does not mean against in the sense of hostility,
but as aside from the normal rule of action—the op-
posite of κατὰ : according to the truce, κατὰ τὰς
σπόνδας ; παρὰ τὰς σπόνδας, contrary to the truce,
where the actor, forsaking the proper line of conduct,
is like a car off the track.

ὡς sk tines γα

Rice ...
ce oe

Παρὰ zx Composition. ΠῚ

CHAPTER ΧΙ.

παρὰ IN COMPOSITION.

131. THERE was beside the Euphrates a narrow
passage (πάροδος) between the river and the ditch.
This passage Cyrus and his army passed through,
παρῆλθε (Anab. 1: 7, 16, 17).

Hdt. 8:15, The Greeks at Thermopylae exhorted
one another not to let the barbarians pass by them
into Greece, παρεκαλεύοντο ὅκως μὴ παρήσουσ: ἐς τὴν
“Ἑλλάδα τοὺς βαρβάρους.

132. Socrates says to his judges (Apol. 1), If,
Athenians, you shall hear me, in my defence, using
the very same manner of address I have been wont
to use with the multitude, I pray you to indulge me,
and let it pass, παρίεσθαι. Anab. 5:7, 10, παρίημι, 7
resign—let the command go by me to another. Hat.
2:96, These rafts are dragged along up the stream
by those on shore, Tavta τὰ πλδια ava τὸν πόταμον
παρέλκεται ἐκ γῆς---παρὰ, along beside the shore.

133. Σκευή denotes the equipments needed in car-
rying on a business, whether in a shop, a kitchen, a
ship, or a camp; σκευάζειν is to furnish or make such
equipment; κατασκευάζειν is to furnish what is es-
sential and permanent—to organize completely. An
army κατασκευαστός is one, all the parts of which are
armed, equipped, officered, and trained, ready for
service. This forms the κατασκευή. But, if an army

78 The Greek Prepositions.

is to take the field, more is necessary; stores of pro-
visions, wagons, and beasts of burden, guides, scouts,
foragers, etc. These are to go along, παρά, as the
army moves. This all forms the παρασκευή ; and an
army thus furnished is παρασκευαστός. The κατα-
σκευή is essential to the complete army, ship, house,
or shop, and is permanent; the παρασκευή is change-
able and temporary.

Now, when all the work of the bridges had been
completed, κατεσκεύαστο, the army equipped for us
march, παρεσκευασμένος, set forth. The work on the
bridge was for permanent use; the equipment was
only for its present march; hence cateox . . . πάρεσκ.

134. These words lend themselves to moral uses ;
and there is a beautiful illustration of the distinction
noted above in Mem. 1:38. Xenophon tells us that
Socrates, when tempted to this vice, and that, was
prepared, παρεσκευασμένος, to resist; the loving dis-
ciple then wishes to say more; he groups all the vices
together, and says that his master was κατεσκευασμέ-
vos against them all. The παρασκευή had become a
κατασκευή; the good resolutions which a less stable
soul might summon, as to an exigency, to meet each
temptation as it came, had become habit and a second

nature—so serenely settled that temptations could not
impress it; the temporary equipment had become a
part of the man himself.

135. Xen. Oecon. 7:7, God has prepared (sape-
oxevacev) the nature of woman for works within

or os
See ee ee

Παρὰ ἦγε Composition. 79

doors; for he has constituted her (κατεσκεύασεν) less
able to endure cold and heat. That woman should
work within doors is not a necessity, but a conven-
ience; that she is less strong to bear hard labor, and
cold, and heat, belongs to her nature, and cannot be
changed.

A wall extends along either bank of the river,
παρὰ χεῖλος ἑκάτερον τοῦ ποταμοῦ αἱμασιὴ παρατείνει
(Hdt. 1:180). Here the preposition is repeated.
‘Along near the western shore of this sea the Caucasus
TUNS ; τὰ πρὸς THY ἑσπέρην φέροντα τῆς θαλάσσης
ταύτης ὁ Καύκασος παρατείνει (Hdt. 1 : 203). In this
example παρὼ governs the Acc. τὰ φέροντα, denoting
the country along which the mountain chain runs.

136. Sometimes the writer omits this object, leav-
ing it to be supplied by the thought. Anab. 1: 7, 15,
The canal had been extended (παρετέτατο, stretched
along) through the plain for twelve parasangs. Here
the preposition is retained, although the writer has
no occasion for naming the objects alongside of which,
or by which, the canal ran.

137. Mem. 1:17, 1, No wonder that they mis-
judged, mapayvavar—judged aside from the truth,
like men who lost their way.

138. The verb αἰνεῖν means to praise; ἐπαινεῖν,
to praise for something done. Now, the same feeling
that prompts to the praise of an action after it is done
would lead to the encouragement of it while it is do-
ing; παραινεῖν, therefore, means to encourage, to ap-

80 The Greek Prepositions.

prove a proposed course of action (Xen. Anab. 5:7)
- παρὰ places the one who approves by the side of
the actor. Thus the discrimination in the meaning
of these two verbs has its root in the prepositions
respectively, as designations of space.

CHAPTER XII.
ἀπὸ AND ἐκ.

139. ᾿Απὸ, off from; ἐκ, out from.

These words alike denote separation; they are
therefore followed by one case invariably—the Geni-
tive. Where ἀπὸ is used, the things separated are in
their nature independent of each other; the contiguity
or nearness before the separation is merely temporary,
or accidental, and, consequently, the thing separated
loses nothing by the separation; it remains whole,
and as good as before. ᾿Απὸ takes good care that its
subjects receive no detriment—they are still kept in
mind. The book, the apple, the flower, taken of
Srom (amo) the table, is the same as before; not so
with ἐκ; water poured from a bowl, ἐκ φιάλης, can-
not be gathered up; coins dropped from a bowl, ἀπὸ
φιάλης, may be gathered up again.

140. These examples suggest that the previous
connection implied by é« is more intimate than that

ee ΑΝ

᾿Απὸ and Ἔκ. 81

implied by ἀπὸ--- 85 we might well suppose from the
hints of space, since that which is ev is more in-
timately connected than that which is merely near
or by. The relation suggested by ἐκ with living
things is often dynamic, or vital. To lead by the
hand, ἐκ xeupos—the guiding power proceding con-
tinually from the hand. Il. 16: 365, As when a cloud
comes from out the sacred air, ἀιθέρος ἐκ dins—it
comes into being where nothing was before.

141. My manner of life from my youth, é« veorn-
tos, which from the first, am’ ἀρχῆς, know all the
Jews (Acts 26:4). Why ἐκ in the first phrase, and
ἀπὸ in the second? ’Ex, because Paul’s character—
which he was now defending—was a continuous growth
out of his youth, as a tree from its root; while ἀπὸ
serves simply to fix a date—and this is done by the
recollection of concurrent outward events.

142. Thue. 2:15, This had been the way of living
among the Athenians from very early times, ἀπὸ τοῦ
πάνυ apyaiov. The reign of Theseus introduced a
great change. rom this ἐξ éxelvov—growing out of
this—they have ever since observed a yearly festival
in commemoration of their completed union. Note
here, as in the case above, the difference in the prep-
ositions ; ἀπὸ belongs to the mere skeleton of history
—é& makes us feel its puise.

143. Mem. 2:7, 2, We neither obtain anything
out of the earth, ἐκ τῆς γῆς, for our enemies control
that; nor from our houses, amd τῶν οἰκιῶν, for there

5

82 The Greek Prepositions.

is a lack of people to rent them; the earth brings
forth of herself, therefore ex, the houses do not.*

Leading from the arm, ἐκ τοῦ βραχίονος ἐπέλ-
xovoa; the connection was not broken.

144, Descent from fathers and near progenitors is
expressed by ἐκ, as if the descendants so near had
their life in their progenitors; but if the time be
long, the tie grows weaker to the imagination, in
tracing it upward, till at last it seems to break, and
we tind azo; as if the far distant descendants had
become quite sundered, and no longer were originated
in their ancestors; τοὺς μὲν ἀπὸ θεῶν, τοὺς δ᾽ ἐξ αὐτῶν
τῶν θεῶν γεγονότες, some by far descent, ἀπὸ, others
immediately from, ἐξ.

CHAPTER XI
ἀπὸ AND ἐκ IN COMPOSITION.

145. Trees fall, and so perish, ἐκπίπτουσιν ; so
kings falling from their power—from all that made

1 In Liddell and Scott’s Lexicon, 7th ed., there is a mistake in Art.
ἜΚ, which it may not be improper to note here. Page 428, line 16:
“With a part, to mark the point of time, συνετάττετο ἐκ τῶν ἔτι
προσιόντων, the army arranged itself αὐ, i.e., from the beginning of
their approach; Xen. An. 1:8, 14.” Ἔκ does not refer to time, but
to the material of which the line was formed. The meaning is, the
army formed its line out of those still marching up—i. e., the front
halted, the rest, as they marched up, formed in line with them.

ον ἢ

᾿Απὸ and Ἔϊκ in Composition. 83

them kings; citizens banished, and so losing their
rights; but an apple, ripe, and so falling, ἀποπίπτει,
for its life in the tree is completed—the tree can do
no more for it; nature testifies to this in the weaken-
ing of the tree’s hold on the apple, till gravitation is
the stronger, and the apple falls. But if a blossom
falls from its stalk and perishes, or if green fruit is
shaken off, thus losing the life it was at the time hay-
ing in the tree, the verb is ἐκπίπτειν ; the flower
thereof falleth, ἐξέπεσε (Epis. Ja. 1:11).

146. ᾿Αποδιδόναι, to restore what was unjustly held,
to pay—the act settles an existing claim, and leaves
the parties free ; ἐκδιδόναι, to give out without a pre-
vious consideration, as a housewife might put out
cloth from her loom to be dressed ; it is still hers, and
must be returned. In the following sentence both
these compounds occur. Whoever agrees with me
will certainly put out (ἐκδώσει) his colt to be trained
—first having come to an agreement how much he
will have to pay (ἀποδοῦναι) when the work is done
(Xen. Equest., ch. 2).

147. 70 reach, ἱκνεῖσθαι; ἐξικνεῖσθαι, to reach im-
mediately, as with the hand, with a pole, a spear, an
arrow from a bow; by the power of sight, by the
power of thought; also to reach by natural growth,
culture, or training. The emphasis throughout is on
the origin, as if the force at the start were sufficient
to achieve the end without stops for rest or reinforce-
ment. The examples are frequent enough, from

84 The Greek Prepositions.

Homer down; but they all lie in the line of thought
here drawn. A single one is introduced here; as it
bespeaks kindness to animals, is homely, and is against
a fashion. Xenophon tells us (De Equest., ch. 5),
“The colt’s tail should be let grow, that it may reach
as far as possible, ὅπως ἐπὶ πλεῖστον ἐξικνούμενος, to
brush off what annoys him.” The word also means
to reach with speed, as in flight, or in a race—the
urgency allowing no time for rest, or thought for the
places passed by. But on a journey or a march time
and distance intervene, measured by the halting-places
—the emphasis on the starting-point fades to the im-
agination; the interest passes over to the end of the
action—é« is dropped, and ἀπὸ lends itself to com-
plete the verbal picture. Of this hard-worked verb,
ἀφικνεῖσθαι, the student of the Anabasis will not fail
to find examples more than enough.

Cyri. Inst. 7:1, Z will lead the war song, παιᾶνα
ἐξάρξω, and do you follow, ὑμεῖς δε ἐφέπεσθε---ἐπὶ,
thereupon; the leading was at the leader’s discretion
—under no law but his own mind—therefore ἐξ.

148. Πειρᾶσθαι, to try; ἀποπειρᾶσθαι, to try with
a desire that the person or thing tried may stand the
trial—so as to be placed in a class by itself. Croesus
(Hdt. 1:46) made trial of the oracles, ἀπεπειρᾶτο
τῶν μαντηΐων, hoping to find one worthy of trust.
Xerxes (Hdt. 8 : 67) asked each one, trying him (ἀπο-
πειρώμενος), to find if he was in favor of engaging in
a sea fight; he did this hoping that each one would

᾿

᾿Απὸ and Ἔϊκ in Composition. 85

favor it. Pausanias made trial of the Greeks, ἀπε-
meipato, to see if any would volunteer (Hdt. 9: 21).
His hope was to find volunteers.

149. ᾿Εκπειρᾶσθαι, to tempt, to try with the desire
that the thing or person tried may fail (Hdt. 2 : 135).
Are you tempting me to speak, ἐκπειρᾷ λέγειν (Oed.
Tyr. 860)—to speak to my own harm—are you trying
to push me beyond my self-control. The aim and
natural result with ἀποπειρᾶσθαι is to approve what
is tried, and place it in a class by itself; the aim and
result with ἐκπειρᾶσθαι is to defeat or destroy what
is tried. With ἀποπειρᾶσθαι the rule and measure of
the trial are prescribed ; with ἐκπειρᾶσθαι nothing is
settled beforehand; it may continue till every resource
that was in the trier has been put forth in the trial.
If you are challenged to break a stick, and answer the
challenge by trying your strength upon it, the verb is
ἐκπειρᾶν ; if you try from a bundle of sticks to find
those that will bear a cross strain of a certain number
of pounds, the verb is ἀποπειρῶν.

A lawyer, before bringing his case before the
court, examines his witnesses, to find what they can
say, amomepatar; his opponent, in the cross-examina-
tion, tries to break them down, ἐκπειρᾶται.

᾿'Ἐκτρέπεσθαι, to turn out, as one would do to
avoid something in his path (Hdt. 1: 104), ἀποτρέ-
mecOa, to turn aside as one would do to observe
something not in his path.

150. Δεικνύναι, to show, point out, as one would

80 The Greek Prepositions.

show a thing, or point out a person, to another; but
if what is pointed out is known to no one else, the
verb is naturally é«d-; as to show feelings concealed
before, to reveal hidden treasures. Oed. Col. 1021, If
you have his children here, show them to me, éxé-. But
if the children were in sight along with others, but not
distinguished from the rest, and the command were:
point out his children to me, the verb would be azro6-.

So, if the thing or person pointed out stands apart
as something notable, and important, the verb is
ἀποδεικνύναι. They show an ancient temple, ἀποὸ-
(Hdt. 1:171). Pointing out the sepulchres, ἀποὸ-
εἰκνύντες, as proofs of their rights in the land (Thue.
1:26). This compound also means to appoint, thus
setting a man forth to public view under this newly-
acquired name.

151. Θνήσκειν, to dic; ἀποθνήσκειν, to die away
from one’s fellows, and his work; ἐκθήσκειν, to expire,
to die by breathing out. These characteristics may
be found where other prepositions than ἀπὸ or ἐκ are
used with words expressive of death; but some other
point, different from any of these, may be prominent
in the speaker’s mind, and require to be accented in
the language; so we have καταθνήσκειν, ἐπιθνήσκειν,
and others, compounds; in cases where these words
are used, the person dying breathes out his last ; and
is separated from his fellows ; but some other point
is emphatic in the thought, and controls the form of
the word.

OTS Oe

᾿Απὸ and ’Ex in Composition. 87

152. ᾿Αποκτείνειν-- οὗ which ἀποθνήσκειν is often
used as the passive—may mean the separation of foes,
the bereavement of survivors in the loss of friends,
or the solution of the conflict between the guilty and
the law which condemns them. In the words of
Andromache (Il. 6: 414), “I have no father, no dear
mother,” ἤτοι yap πατέρ᾽ ἀμὸν ἀπέκτανε δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς,
for my father the mighty Achilles slew ; the picture
is that of her bereavement; but, two lines after, the
same external act is mentioned again; but it is not
now ἀπέκτανεν, but κατέκτανεν---ἃ τα with good reason,
for the point of view has changed ; she is now think-
ing—not of her bereavement, but of the scene at the
moment of the killing. Achilles had conquered her
father, and might have spared him, if he would; but,
with the choice before him, he relentlessly killed him.
No one can read these lines intelligently, and not see
that to exchange the prepositions here would spoil
the picture.

153. ᾽Αποτελέιν, éxteXérv.—The noun τέλος means
the perfection, completion of a thing—the highest
permanent result it can attain; the action through
which a thing is brought to this perfection is ex-
pressed by the verb τελξν. A man completes his
purpose when he carries it out in action—and every
purpose thus carried out invites the use of the verb
renew; but not till he has completed a work that
stands off, aloof from other things, can he apply to
him the verb ἀποτελέιν. This word may be applied

88 The Greek Prepositions.

to things bad as well as good; to the ruin of a city,
or its deliverance, where the end was proposed before-
hand ; to small acts as well as great, if ending in some-
thing that may stand by itself—as the payment of
vows, the building of a house, the plowing of a field.
Hat. 5:92, 7, Whatever Cypselus had left incomplete,
Periander completed, ἀπετέλεε. Hdt. 2: 65, When
they have made vows, they fulfill them, ἀποτελέουσι.
The distinction of a thing suggested by ao—as if
it were set apart from other things—may spring from
its very nature; its greatness may define it, as the
building of a city wall, the liberation of a people.
The discovery of America is, for the imagination,
taken quite out from the series that make up the
biography of Columbus, and set by itself, defined by
its own greatness—an epoch in the world’s history ;
and we predicate ἀποτέλξιν of the man who achieved
it. Kind handling makes colts gentle, ἀποτεέλεέιν ;
puts them in a class (Xen. Equest.). Wise adminis-
tration makes a city prosperous, ἀποτέλξιν (Plato).’

1 Τὴ Liddell and Scott’s Lexicon the phrase τὴν πόλιν ἀποτελέξιν
εὐδαίμονα is translated “to make the state quite happy.” This is mere
groping. The preposition ἀπὸ here simply recognizes that happy states
are set off in thought in a class by themselves, A substantive, limited
by an adjective, is, to thought, just as valid a designation of class as
the substantive alone—only the class is a narrower one. To regard
ἀπὸ as giving intensive force to εὐδαίμονα in this phrase, is to miss a
plain and important point, and to confuse the student; it disregards
the obvious meaning of the preposition, and attributes to it a meaning
not found elsewhere.

Tak iad

Sasa a νῆς

*

᾿Απὸ and “Ex in Composition. 89

154. Now, what is éxredeiv? It is to achieve a
thing out of the spontaneous promptings of the actor’s
own spirit or life; not by command, nor by promise,
or outward obligation. Il. 9:493, The Gods were
granting (ἐξετέλειον) to me no son, ἐκ suggests that
their will was sovereign. Od. 3: 275, Aegisthus, see-
ing that he had accomplished, ἐκτελέσας, a great deed,
that is, his great crime, from his own wicked mind.
Why not say ἀποτελέσας ἃ Because the act was in
fulfillment of no law, or obligation, or acknowledged
end. It had its form and measure solely in the spirit
of the doer.

1. 2: 286, The Achaians are not fuljilling, οὐκ
ἐκτελέουσιν, the promise which they made. The
words are a taunt,against them for not making good
their boastful promise. They were under no obliga-
tion, except to themselves, to make it good. Had
there been such obligation, their failure would have
been expressed by οὐκ ἀποτελέουσιν. See Hdt. 2: 65,
The people of the various cities pay their vows, εὐχὰς
ἀποτελέουσιν. The vow, εὐχὴ, made a public claim
on them, which they could not evade. The fulfill-
ment put their act into a known class of actions; it
discharged their obligation, and set them free (ἀπὸ)
from their bond.

155. In ἐκφεύγειν, é« emphasizes the initial point;
while ἀπὸ in ἀποφεύγειν points to the end, when the
fugitive gets safe away. Anab. 1:49, ἀποπεφευγότες,
having fled for safety. Udt. 1:25, Croesus made a

90 The Greek Prepositions.

thank-offering for his recovery from sickness, ἐκφυγὼν
τὴν νοῦσον ; ἐκ temporary, of course; there is no
ἀποφυγὴ from disease.

The guard has an interest for his prisoner, μὴ
ἐκφύγῃ ; the prisoner has an interest for himself some-
what wider, ὡς ἀποφύγῃ.

156. To lead sjyeto@ar.—We may say of a military
company which marches at the head of a procession,
ἡγεῖται. But the leader may do more than march in
front; he may control and direct; may determine
whether or not there shall be a procession ; or in what
direction and how far it shall go. Just so far as he
does this his action is expressed by ἐξηγεῖσθαι. The
leading is arbitrary, it has no law or limit but in the
mind of the leader; hence this word is naturally used
to express military command (Il. 2: 806; Hdt. 1: 151).
But suppose we change a little the picture of the pro-
cession, and say, as if reading from a newspaper re-
port: It was determined to close the celebration by
services at the monument, one mile distant; and
Company C led the procession. Here the simple
verb ἡγεῖσθαι will not be used; it would express
truth, but not the truth wanted here. A new feature
has been added to the picture, and this demands
recognition. Nor will ἐξηγεῖσθαι answer our turn;
it expresses too much, and at the same time not
enough. It would imply that Company C controlled
the movement, which it never would do in such a
case; and, further, it does not recognize the fact that

Ral
᾽

»

ἡδέων,

᾿Απὸ and Ἔκ in Composition. 91

the movement has a limit and measure quite inde-
pendent of the actor—namely, the monument. To
recognize this objective point, the preposition ἀπὸ is
needed, and the word is ἀφηγεῖσθαι.

157. These words also mean to narrate, set forth.
Hat. 2:115, Alexander gave a true account of his
voyage, τὸ πλόον ἀπηγήσατο; but when he was asked
about Helen he was confused, and did not speak the
truth ; whereupon those who had sailed with him
confuted his statements, telling out the whole story,
ἐξηγεύμενοι πάντα λόγον---ἐξ refers to the conceal-
ment—what was hidden becomes revealed. Note the
same discrimination in thesetwo compounds in Hdt.
2: 121, 1, in the story of the cunningly-built treasure-
house. The dying father calling up his two sons seé
forth to them, τούτοισι ἀπηγήσατο, how he had always
taken good care that they should live in plenty, then
revealing to them, τούτοισι ἐξηγησάμενοι, all about the
movable stone in the wall; his good care of them all
men knew—therefore adny-; the contrivance of a
movable stone was a secret known to him alone—
therefore ἐξηγ-. See also Mem. 4: 7, 6, Anaxagoras
took pride in the thought that he could explain,
ἐξηγεῖσθαι, the mechanism of the heavens—as things
known to himself alone.

158. ᾿Αποφαίνειν, to show, declare something that
already exists, as one’s settled opinion, γνώμην (Hat.
1:40), one’s property, οὐσίαν ; ἐκφαίνειν, to reveal
what was hidden, as truth concealed before (Hdt. 1:

92 The Greek Prepositions.

117); also γνώμην, if it means a hidden purpose (Hat.
ὅ : 36).

The judge declares the law to the jury, ἀποφαί-
vet Tov νόμον; the jury make known their verdict,
éxpaive-—kept secret till by the order of the court
they reveal it. The judge is responsible to a higher
court, the jury are responsible only to their own sense
of right. See Cyri. Inst. 1:2, ὄν δὲ γεραίτεροι ἀκόυ-
σαντες éxxpivovow ; and the elders, having heard the
case, give their decision ; the elders formed the high-
est court—there was no review, nor appeal.

159. ᾿Επὶ, on, and ἀπὸ, off, seem far enough apart
when used alone; but in composition the compound
words are drawn together sometimes so near as to in-
vite comparison. ᾿Αποδιδόναι, ἐπιδιδόναι; ἀποτελεῖν,
ἐπιτέλεῖν, and others. ᾿Αποδιδόναι, to pay, it dis-
charges an indebtedness, and leaves the parties free,
ἀπὸ, of each other.

160. On ἐπιδιδόναι the Lex. says: “To give be-
sides.” This is wrong; it is aside from the natural
suggestion of the preposition, and demonstrably wrong
judged by the examples referred to. 1]. 23: 559, &
με κελεύεις ὄικοθεν ἄλλο Evpyrw ἐπιδοῦναι. . . τελέσ-
ao. If thou requirest me to give to Humelus some
other thing out of my house, that will I do. Here,
from the story, there is no place for the idea of de-
sides; besides what? Not the mare, for that was
reserved to be quarreled over afterward by Antilo-
chus and Menelaus. It was a case of compromise.

‘Amo and Ἔϊκ in Composition. 93

He was to give to Eumelus not something besides the
mare, but instead of the mare. He did give some-
thing else; Eumelus accepted the substitute, and was
satisfied. The mare was left, without a word more
said, to be disposed of between Antilochus and Mene-
laus. The admirable translation by Lang, Leaf, and
Myers, has followed the Lexicon, and therein missed
a point. What then does ἐπιδοῦναι mean, if ἐπὶ does
not suggest the idea besides, in addition to? It means
to give for your satisfaction, on the basis of your
claims. Eumelus had claims. This is not said in
the text, but it is in every reader’s mind; ἐπὶ refers
to those claims, and thus keeps the pulse of thought
alive.

161. The same force of ἐπὶ is again seen in ézai-
τήσειας, Vv. 5938, same book; if for your claims you
should demand, εἰ ἐπαιτήσειας. . . . This word, and its
mistranslation in the Lexicon, has already been re-
marked upon in a note in Sec. 96. It is respectfully
submitted that ἐπὶ never means strictly bestdes, in
addition to; that to translate it so is always a con-
cession to English phraseology (see Sec. 91).

162. ᾿Αποτελεῖν, to complete a thing, so that it is
thought of by itself (see Sec. 136); thus, in the mat-
ter of a religious vow, one indispensable step is to
make the vow; at this stage it is incomplete—it hangs
on him who made it. When the man fulfills his vow,
so that he is free from it (ἀπὸ), his act is expressed
by ἀποτελεῖν. ᾿Επιυτελεῖν, to fulfill an order or com-

94 The Greek Prepositions.

mand; to complete not a whole thing, but a command
from a superior. The result is not a completed thing,
but the satisfaction of the person commanding.

Hat. 1:115, All the other boys did according to
my orders, Ta ἐπιτασσόμενα ἐπετέλεον. Thue. 1:70,
The Athenians are quick to put in execution, érute-
λέσαι ἔργῳ, whatever they purpose.

163. ᾿Απαιτεῖν, to demand back what has been
taken from one, to demand pay (Anab. 1: 2,11). The
soldiers demanded their pay, ἀπήτουν τὸν μισθόν. The
answer to this demand is expressed by ἀποδιδόναι.
ἜἘσπαιτεῖν (Lex.), “to ask besides ”—wrong, as we have
seen. It means ¢o ask on (ἐπὶ) the ground or basis of
something that justifies the asking; also (Lex. again),
“to beg as a mendicant ” (Soph. O. C. 1364). Here
the ingenuous student, meditating on this word of
three syllables, may be tempted to ask: Where does
the “mendicant’’? come in; and what does ἐπὶ hon-
estly mean? Ἐπὶ refers to something not spoken,
but sure to be in the hearer’s mind, if he is awake,
and thus keeps the thought alive. In the line from
Soph. ἐπὶ means (to thought) on the basis of his rags.
To make us think of the asker’s beggarly guise is the
exact office of ἐπὶ here, and the whole of it. It is
just because the speaker had that beggar’s guise in
his imagination that he put in é!—hoping that with
that help we should get it into our imaginations.

164. It may be asked: Is it quite necessary to
dwell so long and minutely on small words? Per-

᾿Απὸ and “Ex in Composition. 95

haps we might reply: It is not quite necessary to
study Greek at all, but if we do study it, it is but
fair that we take pains and patience enough to under-
stand it. If we cannot translate well into English
all that the Greek contains, let us admire what we
cannot imitate; and rejoice that we have in our hands
a recorded language in many respects so superior to
our own; in many respects, not at all superior.’

165. Mem. 2:1, If you wish to be beloved by
Sriends, ὑπὸ φίλων; if you wish to be honored by
any city, ὑπό τινος πόλεως ; and if you aim to get
rich from flocks, ἀπὸ βοσκημάτων. That under
which any thing is acts on that thing by gravitation ;
friends, in loving, act as naturally as stoves fall; soa
city, in bestowing honor; but flocks, in making their
owner rich, do not act—he is made rich from them
(ἀπὸ), not by them (ὑπό).

1 As a single instance, the discriminations marked by shall and
will, with their tenses, have disciplined and served the thought of
English-speaking people, in regions where the Greek mind never
entered.

96 The Greck Prepositions.

CHAPTER sxibve
ἐις AND ἐν.

166. ’Eus, és, into, ἐν, in.

These two prepositions (originally one—évs) carry
to a wide extent the same suggestion as im in the
Latin, in its two meanings of motion ὁγιέο, and posi-
tion in. "Eus always governs the Accusative, ἐν al-
ways the Dative. The opposite notion is expressed
by ἐκ. These contrasted notions—im and out, into
and out of—are linked together, each to its opposite,
by a necessity of our thought. We may as well try
to think of North without a South, of action without
reaction, as try to think one of these notions without
the other. Each is significant only in the light of
the other; each is valid to thought because the other
is there ready to verify it if need be. In these dy-
namics contrast is not less fruitful of suggestion than
analogy, and is nearer at hand. One thought is ever
busy along the line that divides two border lands ;
and written language is the note-book of the survey.
Every line we draw that includes something, does at
the same exclude everything else. Every assertion
made, in thought or words, is a denial of its opposite.

167. The Preposition és, into, may be used before
the names of all things that are bounded in space.
It suggests the crossing of this boundary from with-
out, carrying, by necessity, the idea of motion before

3 Ἐπς and Ἔν. 97

the crossing, and, generally, of room for motion after
crossing. The boundary may not be actual, but at
the moment it must be real in our thought. We look
into space; space has no boundaries; but we think
a boundary, and so justify ourselves in using the
phrase.

All things have their boundaries; time is bounded,
life is bounded—so are our powers, and opportunities,
our hopes and fears; everything, in short, may be
thought of under this limitation; and, wherever this
is done, the name of the thing, with és before it,
forms a rational phrase in the language—and the
student will usually have the satisfaction of seeing it.

168. But let us not go too far. Let us not make
our analysis and deduction our taskmasters rather
than our helpers; and, when we cannot see our way,
let us accept the limitation of our ability, and make
the toil of memory supply the lack of insight. An
old coin, worn smooth by ages of use, may be made,
by heating, to give back its original figures, invisible
when it is cold. But we cannot always restore an old
Greek phrase, and make it give back its exact impress
when it was first struck in the mind’s mint.

We know, indeed, or may know, if we will think,
why καθ᾽ év means one by one; and that ἀνὰ, with év
standing after it, means nothing at all. They are not
in the dictionary because they serve no possible hu-
man thought. In trying to think it, we find that the
end is provided for, and declared at the start—which

98 The Greek Prepositions.

shows that ἀνὰ is impertinent and out of place. But
through what different lines of thought the military
phrases éis τέσσαρας, and ἐπὶ τέσσαρας, come to mean
the same thing, fowr deep, is not so clear; and the
result will not perhaps reward the labor of inquiring.

169. The notion most naturally accompanying that
of és (into), is that of room to move in after the
entrance is made (this is not declared, nor is it always
true, but the thought is natural, partly as a continu-
ance of the motion of entrance); but with ἐν, on the
contrary, there is no suggestion of motion, and the
naturally accompanying notion is that of confinement
and fixedness. ‘These accompanying notions will have
their part to play in helping to the meanings of the
word. “Eq τινι éwar, and ἔν τινι éwat, each denotes
dependence; but the latter a dependence more entire
and absolute—as the connection in space denoted by
év is closer and more fixed than that suggested by
ἐπὶ. Cyrus the younger was dependent on his elder
brother, ἢν ἐπὶ τῷ ἀδελφῷ πρεσβυτέρῳ ; this was a
human relation, temporal and external; but for what
is more intimate, the divine with the human (see New
Testament, John 17:23), Z in them, and thou in me,
that they may be made perfect in one, ἐγὼ ἐν ἀυτόις,
καὶ σὺ ἐν ἐμοὶ, ἵνα ὦσι τετέλεσμένοι ELS EV.

170. The inroad into a country by an army is ex-
pressed by the noun ἐισβολή ; ἐν with the same verbal
root gives the noun ἐμβολεύς, a plug or stopper.
These examples show with what tenacity the primary

ee

Ἔπς and Ἔν. 99

suggestion of the prepositions in space clings to the
compounds and their derivatives—the first of the
above examples suggesting room for motion after
entering. The second denotes a position fixed and
immovable.

With this discrimination in mind, we find a reason
for differences in the Greek which we cannot well
express in an English translation. We find, in de-
scribing an army arrayed for battle, ἐν τῷ εὐωνύμῳ,
on the left, and ἐπὶ tév εὐωνύμου, on the left; and
perhaps we cannot improve the translation. We must
not on that account suppose the two forms are inter-
changeable. Let us take a narrative where both
phrases occur (Anab. 1:8), ἐν δὲ τῷ εὐωνύμῳ Αριαῖός
τε καὶ τὸ ἄλλο βαρβαρικόν, and on the left were
Ariaeus and the other barbarian forces. Again, and
there were horsemen on the left of the enemy, καὶ
ἦσαν ἵππεῖς ἐπὶ Tov εὐωνύμου τῶν πολεμίων. Observe,
these horsemen on the extreme left were a movable
body—they might be sent here or there as the turns
of the battle should require ; but Ariaeus and his bar-
barian force were an integral part of the line of battle
—fixed there, for his removal would have changed
the whole plan of the battle. On ἐπὶ see 55, on ἐν
see 169.

171. We have seen, in comparing és and ἐν, that
ἐις, suggestive directly of motion, is suggestive, sec-
ondarily of room, of freedom to move without restraint
or obstacle; ἐν, on the contrary, denoting position

100 The Greek Prepositions.

merely, makes us think of something as confined, held
fast—possibly in contact or in conflict with that which
confines it.

172. In studying the following compounds of ἐὺς
and ἐν, we shall find distinctions of meaning which
they owe to these primary suggestions.

Ἔμβάλλειν, eioParrew.— Hat. 1:17, He sent in
an invading army, ἐσέβαλε στρατιήν. After enter-
ing they had room to march round and ravage—
which they did.

The other Greeks began to back water, avexpovovto
(note in passing the force of ava); but an Athenian
captain starting forth attacked a ship, νηὶ ἐμβάλλει
(Hdt. 8:84). Here was impact, arrest of motion,
conflict.

173. The object of εἰσβάλλειν is something that
can act after it is in, and εἰς helps fit the word to the
situation. To throw poison ito the wells, ἐς τὰ
φρέατα, is εἰσβάλλειν, for the poison diffuses itself
and acts after it is in (Thue. 2:48); but to throw
grain into the manger, εἰς τὴν φάτνην, is ἐμβάλλειν---
the grain does not act after it isin. The objects of
ἐμβάλλειν are lifeless things, or creatures in a passive
relation ; ἐμβάλλειν τινὰ πόντῳ, to throw one ito the
sea, to perish. Ἐμβολὴ, as a nautical term, is the
driving the beak of a ship against the side of the
enemy’s ship, where she can make no resistance; but
an attack, prow to prow, is προσβολή, for the ship
attacked can respond to the attack.

Ἔπς and Ἔν. 101

174. ᾿ἘἜΠμβιβάζειν, εἰσβιβάζειν, to put on board;
but ἐμβ-, where the object of the verb is inert, or
passive—placed on board simply to be carried ; εἰσβ-,
where the object of the verb is sent on board to act—
as seamen, to man the ship; soldiers, to fight; officers,
to command those on board; ἐν suggesting confine-
ment, and eis a sphere for action. Anab. 5:8, 1,
They put on board, ἐνεβίβασαν, the sick, and those
over forty years of age, and children and women, and
the baggage; and sending on board, εἰσβιβάσαντες,
Philesius and Sophaenetus directed them to take charge
of these, τούτων ἐκέλευον ἐπιμέλξισθαι.

175. Some compounds with ἐν and ex are appar-
ently so nearly alike in meaning—while yet they are
distinctly different—that a comparison of them is
called for at this place. ἔνδηλος and ἔκδηλος. The
latter, ἔκδηλος, means clearly perceived, but not known
by name—distinct in form, color, or action, from what
is around it; ἔνδηλος means clearly known through
perception; it is more than clearly perceived, it is
known by name. A dark speck is clearly seen in the
sky; it is not known at once what it is; it is ἔκδηλος.
After a little study the observer becomes sure what
it is, and can give it a name; then it is ἔνδηλος. It
has, to the observer’s mind, found its home én a class,
ἐν, and has taken its name; before this it was only
something coming out of, ἐκ, the blank air to sight,
without a name.

176. Il. 5:2, To Diomedes Athene gave might

102 The Greek Prepositions.

and courage, that he might be conspicuous, ἔκδηλος,
among all the Argives. It was designed that he
should draw all eyes from others to himself, by his
manifest superiority to them in action. This is a
situation that calls for ἔκδηλος. Now, what situation
would call for ἔνδηλος ἡ Diomedes himself may serve
our turn, with a little preparation ; let him come forth
on the plain amid the other Argives, and the Trojans
far off see him coming; he draws all eyes to himself,
such might and courage does he show—they do not
know who he is—he is ἔκδηλος ; but after a little,
from his horses, his armor, or something seen more
clearly as he comes near, they see who he is—then he
is ἔνδηλος.

I look out of my window and see a poppy so
brilliant and so peculiar that it draws my eye away
from every other poppy; it is ἔκδηλος, and to me it
is only that, for I do not know its specific name;
when I shall learn its name through its specific marks,
it will be ἔνδηλος.

Soph. Antis. 405, dp’ ἔνδηλα καὶ σαφῆ λέγω; Do
I speak it clear and plain ; ἔνδηλα, so that you not
only hear my voice distinct among other sounds—
which would be éé7xa—but you know what I mean.

177. Thue. 4:132, 70 give some clear token of
steadfastness on the Athenian side, ἔνδηλόν τι ποιξιν
τοῖς ᾿Αθηναίοις βεβαιότητος πέρι. Observe, the first
word makes a call at the start for something definite
in the conclusion; the last words answer this eall;

Ἔπς and Ἔν. 108

ἔκδηλος would scatter the thought, and leave the last
words without any business in the phrase.

178. A light appears in the evening in the eastern
horizon; it may be a rising star, it may be an artifi-
cial light; it is ἐκφανής, and no more, as long as that
doubt remains. After a little, something which the
observer sees makes it certain which of the two pos-
sible things it is; then it becomes ἐμφανής, for it has
aname. Ἔν and ἐκ serve our thought just as clearly
here as they serve our senses when, on seeing some-
thing shining in a colorless heap, we take it owt of
the heap, and finding it to be a jewel, put it im ἃ
box.

179. Τὰ ἐκφανῆ, figures in alto-rilievo (Plato Con-
viy.), that is, figures clearly seen because standing
out, ἐκ, from the surface of the stone. Could the
word ἐμφανῆ be used on these figures? Very prop-
erly, as soon as they are interpreted—not before ;
the ἐν looking forward to the meaning; ἐκ looking
back to the plane surface owt from which the figures
sprung.

180. Let the stone bearing these figures have
been found among ruins, and so corroded by time
and chance that it cannot be told at once what the
figures mean, or what creatures they represent. They
are still ἐκφανῆ, as on the day they were cut—expavh
and no more. Now, let some gifted genius discover
what the figures are, and what the whole means, and
they are ἐμφανῆ.

104 The Greek Prepositions.

Il. 4: 468, “ Where his side was uncovered of his
buckler as he bowed him down”; wncovered, é&e-
φαάνθη.

181. Plat. Theact. 906, 4., Ὃ λόγος τὴν διάνοιαν
ἐμφανῆ ποιξι διὰ φωνῆς μετὰ ῥημάτων τε καὶ ὀνομάτων,
discourse makes plain our thought by means of vocal
sounds with words and phrases. Sounds of an un-
known language can be no more than ἐκφανεῖς to him
who hears.

For a comparison of ἐκδεικνύναι with ἀποδ (see
Sec. 150).

182. ᾿Εκδεικνύναι, to show to the senses, so that the
object is perceived that was not perceived before;
the act communicates no knowledge, it only serves
the senses. Show his children to me, ἐκδ- (Oed. Col.
1021). The sole object of the showing is that the
speaker may 866 them; ἐνδεικνύναι, to show to the
mind something more than is seen, as the name, char-
acter, or action. I]. 19: 83, I[Aeldn ἐγὼν ἐνδείξομαι ;
7 will show myself to Pelides ; will show my better
mind, that he may know me, hitherto he has misun-
derstood me. ‘Do you see the man whom I point
out?” I see him. “JZ will show you his name and
title.” The first verb is é«é-, the second is évéd-; ἐν
puts the object in a category to the person addressed,
in which it was not before. Cyri. Inst. 1:6, You
will be able to use more persuasive words in just the
degree that you can show yourself, ἐνδείκνυσθαι, able
to do them good, or do them harm; the preposition

Ἔπς and Ἔν. 105

ἐν places the object in the class of able ones—able to
do good or to do harm.

183. The meanings of these two compounds seem
nearly the same—to wndertake, take in hand; but
there is a difference not to be overlooked. This
difference is suggested by the prepositions. Zo take
a thing in hand, ἐγχειρεῖν, implies that the thing so
taken can be grasped and handled—is under control.’
The hand is the superior, the thing the ¢nferior, that
may be moved by it, and may be held in its grasp.
With ἐπιχειρεῖν the picture is different ; here it is the —
hand that is pictured as movable, and the thing on
which it is put is thought of as stationary ; whether
it is really movable or not is just the question to be
determined in the act expressed by ἐπιχειρεῖν. It is
for just this kind of human experience, where living
force comes against obstacles whose power of resist-
ance, or character in other respects, is not yet deter-
mined, that calls for such a verb as ἐπιχειρεῖν to come
in and play its part.

184. We will now examine some examples, and
see if they confirm the deductions from the original
meanings of the prepositions.

1 The Lexicon strangely says ἐγχειρεῖν, to put one’s hand in a thing.
This mistakes the figure. The thing is taken in hand—into the hand—
in order to manage and control it, and not the hand put into the thing.
This last, whether it be fire, or earth, or water, or a trap, into which
one puts his hand, is not the way to affect the thing, but to affect the
hand itself. β

106 The Greek Prepositions.

Xen. Ages. 1:1, It is not easy to make a worthy
record of his praise, but yet 7 must be undertaken,
ἐγχειρητέον. The proposed work was in the writer’s
line—no one was more competent, therefore he could
do it—the work was zn his hand. Plato Apol. Soc.,
I must attempt, Athenians, in the little time I have,
to remove the bad opinion you have had of me.so
long ; must endeavor, ἐπυχειρητέον ; his hand was upon
something that it might be beyond his strength to re-
move. Mem. 2:3, To win over my friend to care
for my affairs when I should be away from home, I
would endeavor to take an interest in his affairs when
he should be absent; would endeavor to take an in-
terest, ἐγχειροίην ἐπιμελεῖσθαι ; this he could certainly
do, hence ἐν is the right preposition—it makes the
word suit the fact. Thue. 2:3, They resolved that
the attempt should be made, ἐπιχειρητέα:; it might not
succeed, therefore ἐπί. In general we may say éyyeup-
eiv is concerned in individual matters ; ἐπιχειρεῖν with
wider and more important interests. This is in con-
formity with the primary suggestions of ἐν and ἐπὶ
respectively ; and the instances found in reading con-
firm the distinction. Plat. Prol. 310, C., "Eveyeipnoa
παρά σε ἰέναι, 7 tried to come to thee—a thing naturally
within the actor’s power; any defeat or hindrance
would come not from the nature of the case, but from
some accidental cause ; hence éyy-.

Hadt. ὃ: 158, Necos was the first who tried, ézre-
χείρησε, for a canal leading into the Red sea; which

’Eus and Ἔν. 107

Darius the Persian afterwards dug through, διώρυξεν.
This was a large undertaking, carrying in its nature
the possibility of failure ; hence ézrey-.

185. Τυγχάνειν, to hit, but as hitting is in a degree
a matter of chance, the words come to mean to happen
as by chance; ἐπιτυγχάνειν, to fall wpon, meet with—
the relation suggested by ἐπὶ is transient, not neces-
sarily making a change in either of the things brought
together; with ἐντυγχάνειν the relation is closer; to
strike into a thing is more than to strike upon it.
The crocodile coming upon, ἐντυχών, the bated hook
swallows it down. Hdt. 2:70. Cyrus used often to
send to his friends half emptied jars of wine, when
he had some of the best, saying that had not now for
a long time come across, ἐπυτύχοι, sweeter wine than
this. Anab. 1:9, 25, The crocodile must needs swal-
low the bated hook; with Cyrus drinking up the
wine, or even taking possession of it, was a matter for
his discretion ; therefore ἐντυγχάνειν---ἐπιτυγχάνειν.

When digging 7 came upon, ἐπέτυχον, a coffin
seven cubits long (Hdt. 1:68). The act led to no
change in the coffin or the finder. The chariots had
scythes underneath, pointing toward the ground, so
as to cut in two whatever they might came across, ὅτῳ
ἐντυγχάνοιεν.

108 The Greek Prepositions.

CHAPTER XV.
περὶ AND ὑπέρ.

186. Περὶ, around, about, concerning ; ὑπὲρ, over,
above, for, in behalf of.

These prepositions alike express some form of
superiority—the first in overcoming distance, the sec-
ond in overcoming gravitation.

They alike take after them an object in the Geni-
tive, suggestive usually of a causal relation in the
object of the preposition ; as ἐπειγόμενοι περὶ νίκης,
pressing on for victory (Il. 28 : 451); the desire for
victory called forth the effort; ἐκκυβιστᾶν ὑπὲρ τῶν
ξιφῶν, to leap over the swords—the danger of the feat
stimulated to the endeavor (Xen. Conviv. 2:11).

187. These two prepositions alike take an object
in the Accusative; Achilles pursued him around the
city, περὶ ἄστυ (Il. 22: 173). To go found the city
was not the pursuer’saim. 1]. 5:16, The spear-point
passed over the shoulder, ὑπὲρ ὦμον ; it was not the
aim to have the spear pass over the shoulder. We
may say then, that to go around a lake ¢o survey i,
would require that the object of περὶ be in the Geni-
tive; to go arqund it as the necessary way of getting
forward in one’s journey would put the object in the
Accusative ; to throw a stone over a tree by successful
effort would put the object of ὑπὲρ in the Genitive;

Περὶ and Ὕπέρ. 109

a bird flying over a tree would put the object in the
Accusative.

188. We here come to a distinction; περὶ. may
take an object in the Dative case, ὑπὲρ never; and
this difference arises from the original difference in
these prepositions as designations of space. The thing
which is around another may be so attached to it as
to have a fixed position, and this invites the use of
the Dative; as a ring around the finger, περὶ δακτύλῳ,
a bracelet around the wrist, περὶ χειρί, the coat of
mail about the body, wept στήθεσσιν. In these cases
the whole of the thing surrounded furnishes a surface
of attachment.

189. With ὑπὲρ, however, the case is different.
The situation over, above, presents to the imagination
no point of attachment; it is thought of as the mo-
mentary result of passing from one side to the other ;
there is no halting, therefore no fixedness, therefore
no opportunity for the Dative. If that which is over
is thought of as resting on, and so as fixed, ὑπὲρ is
discharged, yielding its place to éwi. The reason,
therefore, that ὑπὲρ is not followed by the Dative
ease is that ordinary human experience does not pre-

- gent the situation that calls for that collocation.

190. The study of examples containing these pre-
positions reveals also another distinction, traceable to
the original meanings of these prepositions as desig-
nations space. To be around a thing is a situation
which many may hold at the same time, as soldiers

110 The Greek Prepositions.

drawn up around a city; to deliberate about public
affairs ; such expressions invite the use of περὶ ; but
to fight for one’s hearth and home, as if one were
standing over them to defend them, invites the use
of ὑπέρ; so too, when one acts in behalf of another,
making that other’s case his own. Demos. adv. Phil.
1, The war was begun with the purpose to chastise
Philip, περὶ τοῦ τιμωρήσασθαι Φίλιππον ; the end of
it is an endeavor to save ourselves from his hands,
ὑπὲρ τοῦ μὴ παθεῖν αὐτούς κακῶς. The first was a
work in which any who pleased might engage; the
last was fitting for the Athenians alone—hence περὶ,
ὑπέρ. To speak about our affairs, περὶ τῶν πραγμά-
των; a thing which any citizen might do, each one
bringing his contribution to the discussion.

To offer sacrifice for the city, ὑπὲρ τῆς πόλεως
(Mem. 2:2, 13), an act in behalf of others, restricted
to those who were first approved as worthy to per-
form it.

This is the truth concerning the affair, περὶ τοῦ
πράγματος (Hdt. 1: 117), this is the one thing that is
true of the many that may be said.

191. They are not making war for glory, περὶ
δόξης, nor for a part of their own territory, ὑπὲρ
μέρους χώρας (Demos. Olyn. 1); fighting for glory
was an open question; fighting in defense of their
own land was not; it was standing over their own
hearth; no discussion here could be in place. Oyri.
Instit. 3:3, They will not cease talking about us,

Περὶ and Ὕ πέρ. 111

διαλεγόμενοι περὶ ἡμῶν. Since you are silent I will
speak Sor you and for ourselves, ὑπὲρ σῦυ Kal ὑπὲρ
ὑμῶν; in behalf of, as standing over to pe or
defend.

Anab. 7:4, 10, Would you even be willing to die
Jor this one, ὑπὲρ τούτου. You must fight with me
Sor him, περὶ τουδέ μοι διαμάχεσθαι, for I will not
give him up. In the first phrase the actor is of neces-
sity one; in the second, it is necessarily more than
one—the object of the preposition is not thought as
belonging to either of the actors; therefore ὑπὲρ could
not be used.

192. How is τέ that I hear this of thee? τί tévto
ἀκούω περὶ σῦυ (Luke 16:2). The accusations were
brought to the master respecting his steward; but
(Il. 6 : 524) that on your account I hear shameful re-
proaches from the Trojans, ὅθ᾽ ὑπὲρ σέθεν ἄισχέ
ἀκούω πρὸς Τρώων. Hector was the head of the
house; therefore the shameful things, aicyea, were
uttered against Hector himself for not controlling his
cowardly younger brother. It is an appeal not to
Paris’s bravery and patriotism, but to his family pride,
and regard to his brother; πρὸς Τρώων, not by hear-
say from the Trojans, but face to face, as they stood
before him, and uttered their reproaches.’

1 The translation by Lang, Leaf, and Myers, is as follows: “That
I hear shameful words concerning thee in the Trojans’ mouths, who
for thy sake endure much toil.” The one offered above is quite differ-
ent in the picture it presents, and seems commended by several con-

112 The Greek Prepositions.

CHAPTER XVI.
περὶ AND ὑπὲρ IN COMPOSITION.

193. Ix some compounds with περὶ, and in many
with ὑπὲρ, the preposition simply intensifies the mean-
ing of the simple word ; καλός, beautiful ; περικαλλής,
very beautiful ; μέγας, great; ὑπέρμεγας, immensely
great. These are called Adverbial uses; because the
noun—object of the prepositions—is not named. It
may however be restored; περικαλλής, beautiful be-
yond (περὶ) others; ὑπέρμεγας, great above (ὑπὲρ)
others.

In most compounds of περὶ and ὑπὲρ, the mean-
ing is too plain to invite or justify the citation of
examples.

194. An apparent contradiction is found in the
meanings of περιορᾶν and zeplovda—words usually

siderations ; it preserves the natural and strict use of ὑπὲρ, while
“concerning thee” is the translation of περὶ, not of ὑπὲρ; it is in
consonance with the kindly temper of Hector toward his younger
brother; it harmonizes with the patriarchal feeling, making Hector—
the head of the family—responsible for all its members; it spares the
self-love of Paris, since it does not present Hector as telling him the
bad things the Trojans were saying about him (Hector takes all this
upon himself); it is more winning, making the appeal not to Paris’s
love of country, but to his love of family; it presents a picture all
pulsating with life—the chieftain weighted with public cares, yet warm
in his family affections, and mediating between his family and his
people. For the meaning of πρὸς with the Gen., see Sec. 84.

Περὶ and Ὑπὲρ in Composition. 113

classed together as having the same signification.
The word is sometimes used with the meaning to
look around and not see—to disregard, take no note
of—as if the sight went round the object so as to
avoid it; in other cases the preposition is used inten-
sively, as if the seer saw more than another would see
in a like case. Hdt. 1:89, If, therefore, thou shalt
permit, περιΐδῃς, this plundering. 1]. 10 : 247, Since
he excels in taking note, ἐπεὶ περίοιδε νοῆσαι. Od.
17: 317, Hor on the track he was keen beyond others,
ἴχνεσι yap περιήδη. Hdt. 3:65, 1 charge you not to
permit, μὴ περιϊδεῖν, the sovereignty to come round
again to the Medes. Od. 8 : 244, Since he és knowing
beyond others, περίοιδε ἄλλων.

195. Our English words look and see with the
preposition over play the same double game with us.
We should think certainly, from Etymology, that the
business of an overseer was to make oversight—the
very things he ought not to do. So, too, a man, in
looking over an account ought not to overlook a single
item in it.

In either language such verbal contradictions may
remind us how meager the resources of language are
compared with the ever-varying shapes and turns of
thought which it has to serve.

196. Περιμένειν (Hdt. 7:58), They had been or-
dered to wait for his coming, περιμένειν ; the time of
his coming was uncertain, and what they were to do
afterward was uncertain ; compare ἀναμένειν and κατα-

114 The Greek Prepositions.

μένειν. Hdt. 4:89, περιμένειν, to wait for some-
thing uncertain, as to the time of the arrival, or the
result of it; not as stated in the Lexicon, like simple
μένω.

197. It may be well to bring περιμένειν and ἀνα-
μένειν into a stricter comparison by examining a pass-
age in which they both occur (Anab. 5:1, 4 and 5).

The Greeks, having made their way through the
mountains to Trapezus, and rested there, are deliberat-
ing how to complete their return home. They wish to
go by sea, if possible. Chirisophus speaks: “ Anaxi-
bius is a friend of mine, and is now admiral. If you
will send me, I think I shall obtain ships and trans-
ports sufficient to carry you home. Now do you, if
you wish to return by sea, remain here (περιμένετε)
till I shall return, and that will not be long.” Hear-
ing this the soldiers rejoiced, and voted that he sail
as quick as possible. After so much had been settled
Xenophon addresses them: “Chirisophus is sent to
obtain ships, and we are going to wait for his return
(avapevodpev). I will now tell you what I think we
ought to be doing while we wait.” Observe, the
situation is changed when Xenophon speaks. They
have resolved to go by sea, and instructed Chirisophus
to make all haste. In every mind the thought is that
their course home is settled, and that they shall soon
be on their way. The situation calls for ἀναμένειν,
just as περιμένειν was fitted for the waiting when
everything was in doubt.

Are Prepositions Interchangeable ? 115

CHAPTER XVII.
ARE PREPOSITIONS INTERCHANGEABLE ?

198. Can prepositions be interchanged without a
change of meaning? <A respectable author’ answers
this question in the afirmative. Let us examine the
examples adduced in proof. The prepositions given
as interchangeable are ava, ἐν, περὶ, also ἐπὶ and ἐις.
Hdt. 6:86, “Ava πᾶσαν τὴν ᾿λλάδα, ἐν δὲ καὶ περὶ
Ἰωνίῃν τῆς σῆς δικαιοσύνης ἣν λόγος πολλός. Through
all the rest of Greece, and particularly in and about
Lonia, there was much talk of thy honesty. Observe,
the speaker was an Ionian; he was therefore well ac-
quainted with matters in and about that small coun-
try ; but when he speaks of all the rest of Greece, he
of course means as far as he knew—either by travel
or through the reports of others. This mental quali-
fication lies in the nature of the case. He could not
know all the rest of Greece as he knew his own little
country Ionia. We have just the situation that in-
vites the use of ava. The picture is complete; the
other prepositions—év, 7epi—trip like nimble servitors
each to his place. Nothing can be interchanged, or
even changed.

199. Again, from Demos.: Τῆς ἐπὶ τὴν ᾿Αττικὴν
ὅδου καὶ τῆς εἰς IleXotrovvncov κύριος γέγονεν, He has

! Jelf., vol. ii, p. 817, Oxf.

116 The Greek Prepositions.

become master of the road to Attica, and of that into
Peloponnesus. We might, indeed, say: εἰς τὴν ᾿Ατ-
τικήν, for the country had boundaries, and space
within those boundaries ; but this was not the picture
in the speaker’s mind. It was a little tract, with one
great prize to invite the aggressor, and Philip was its
implacable foe. Now, what preposition is called for,
when the speaker would say that Philip is master of
the road to Aitica? Demosthenes was not such a
lazy public functionary as to shape his phrase with
the preposition εἰς. His mind kindled with the pict-
ure of Philip’s hostility to Athens, and so he employs
emt. Peloponnesus, on the other hand, had a territory
more than ten times as large as Attica, contained seven
states, of diverse policies and aims, and was entered
by a long, narrow isthmus—a kind of neck to a capa-
cious bottle. Here everything invites the use of eis;
as for ἐπὶ there was no combination among the seven
states forming such a political unit as would admit
its use.

200. It may seem that in the English phrase to
fall on the knees, which is sometimes expressed in
Greek by ἐπὶ and sometimes by εἰς, these preposi-
tions are interchangeable. But this is not quite clear.
When one falls om his knees in submission or sup-
plication, the preposition is é7i; when he stumbles
and falls on his knees, it is εἰς. This last situation
calls for instant action for relief, or recovery; and
we have seen that εἰς suits this situation, and ἐπὶ does

"Audi, On Both Sides of, Around, About. 117

not, for the stumbler does not fall on his knees to do
something there; his instant call is to get out of the
position. The petitioner is on his knees to do some-
thing while remaining there—a situation that calls
for ἐπί.

201. To say that Prepositions cannot ever be in-
terchanged would be a very rash statement ; but before
adducing examples in proof of a possible interchange
the critic should see well that he understands the
Greek, not through an English translation of it, but
by imagining the situation that called for the ex-
pression, and in that way feels its force. There is
no other path; every sentence has a breathing life of
its own; and not until one feels its pulse can he
criticise it.

CHAPTER XVIII.
ἀμφί, ON BOTH SIDES OF, AROUND, ABOUT.

202. Tuts preposition has a claim to stand beside
περὶ, both for its general resemblance, and for its
specific difference. Originally it means on both sides
of ; and is called for in speech about living creatures,
which have right and left sides, right and left feet,
eyes, and so forth. This original meaning is so near
to περὶ that in many cases it seems to stand for it;
oi περὶ Tov Πείσανδρον (Thue. 8 : 65); οἱ ἀμφὶ Ἐέρξεα

118 The Greek Prepositions.

(Hdt. 8:25); of numbers, οἱ ἀμφὶ τὰς δώδεκα μυριάδας
(Cyri. Inst. 1 : 2, 15); περὶ ἑβδομήκοντα (Thue. 1 : 54).
In other instances the distinction between ἀμφὶ and
περὶ is plain; οἶκος ἀμφίθυρος, a house with a door
on both sides, that is, in front and rear (Soph. Ph. 159);
such a word as περίθυρος has no use, and therefore no
place in the language; ἀμφίθαλής, of children, happy
in having doth parents alive (Il. 22: 496). It is plain
that, if a definite number is thought of as a point
reached by counting, a number somewhere near that,
more or less, would invite the use of audi, and not
περὶ, to express it, for the act of counting is naturally
thought of as proceding in a line, as when one counts
balls on a rod, or beads on a string. Any variation
from a number so thought of must be either less or
more along that line. This is the picture presented
in of ἀμφὶ tas δώδεκα μυριάδας, quoted above. But
περὶ is also used in expressions of number, as with
ἑβδομήκοντα, just above; and possibly περὶ is pre-
fered to ἀμφὶ here as suiting better the picture in the
writer’s imagination; for Thucydides was thinking of
the seventy ships, more or less, sunken in the sea-fight ;
the wide waste of water, and the scattered and sink-
ing ships presented a picture where περὶ was not out
of place, as it would be in thinking of number in a
line, or on a string. However this may be, ἀμφὶ
suits the mental picture, as περὶ would not, in noting
the time (ἀμφὶ ἀγορὰν πλήθουσαν) when the messenger
arrived at full speed to announce the approach of the

Πρό, Before, In Front of. 119

enemy. ‘Time is thought of asa line. So, too, audi
strictly suits the mental picture in 1]. 3:70, Set ye me
and Menelaus to fight,for Helen, ἀμφὶ ‘EXevn. There
were but two claimants, and one way or the opposite,
as if along the same line, the prize must go.

In many cases our search does not disclose a dis-
tinction in use between dudi and περίἔ. But the
original designations in space are not the less distinct ;
περὶ is the servitor of the dimensions, length, and
breadth, audi of only one, the line.

CHAPTER XIX.
πρό, BEFORE, IN FRONT OF.

203. Πρό, before, as walls, forts, and defenders are
before the city ; to go forth, πρό, is to go as champion,
or defender; the point of view is the place from which
he goes; and the relation is, usually, that of acting in
behalf of another, taking his part, meeting danger
for him. 1]. 10: 286, ὅτε πρό ᾿Αχαιῶν ἄγγελος Het,
when he went as messenger in behalf of the Achaians.

Of Hector we read (Il. 24: 215), He stood forth
before (πρό) the Trojan men and fair women, nor
thought of fear nor flight ; πρό, forth as champion.

204. I]. 17: 665, Then from Patroclus went Mene-
laus, sore loth, for he exceedingly feared lest the

120 The Greek Prepositions.

Achaians in disheartening fear, ἀργαλέου πρὸ φόβοιο,
should leave him a prey to his foes; πρό, as if driven
forth by fear.

205. The prepositions πρὸ and ὑπὲρ have one
broad mark in common. They are alike witnesses in
speech to the fact that man has in him the power
rationally and freely to deny himself for his fellow-
man; can toil for him to his own loss, can suffer,
endure, and die for him. Cyri. Inst. 8:8, 4, διακιν-
duvevew πρὸ βασιλέως, to incur danger in behalf of
the king. Hdt. 7: 134, Would any one be willing fo
die for Sparta, πρὸ τῆς Σπάρτης ἀποθνήσκειν ; also
7:172, to perish for your defense, πρὸ ὑμῶν ἀπολέσ-
θαι. Soph. O. T. 10, to speak in behalf of these, πρὸ

τῶνδε φωνεῖν.

CHAPTER XxX.

σὺν AND μετά.

206. Σὺν, with, along with; μετά, among, in com-
mon with.
These two prepositions, when considered together,

* The Lexicon seems to accept as authority the Scholiast, who says
“flight, Lat. fuga, the only sense of φόβος in Homer”’; but 1]. 9: 2 dis-
proves this dictum; φύζα φόβου κρυόεντος ἑταίρη, headlong rout, com-
panion of chilling fear; in this passage fear, φόβος, is the expression
for the inward feeling; of this feeling flight, φύζα, its outward sign,
is the attendant, going with it, as the effect goes with its cause.

Σὺν and Μετά. 191

throw light on each other, both from their likeness
and their difference. Od. 9: 286, I with these, σὺν
τοῖσδε, escaped destruction. The association here
is transient and purely incidental to the act of mak-
ing their escape. Od. 10: 320, Now go to the sty,
lie there with the rest of thy company, μετ᾽ ἄλλων
ἑταίρων. Here the association is the emphatic thing.
Anab. 1:9, 2, For first when yet a boy, and receiv-
ing his training with his brother and with the other
boys, σὺν τῷ αδελφῷ Kal σὺν τοῖς ἄλλοις παισί, he was
reckoned far superior to them all. Here the associa-
tion expressed by σὺν is incidental, subservient to the
comparison, which is the main point.

Od. 16:140, He used to eat and drink with serv-
ants, μετὰ δμώων, in the house. Here the association
is not incidental ; it is the essential point.

207. In every case, indeed, where there is associa-
tion, there must be participation in something ; those
who sit together at table must participate in the com-
mon fare; those who travel together must participate
in the hardships of the way. The use of pera or of
σὺν usually determines whether this participation is
the leading idea conveyed.

208. Men not only act with, σύν, their fellows,
but with their own endowments and qualities (Od.
24:193); a wife with great virtue, σὺν μεγάλῃ ἀρετῇ 5
with their equipment, σὺν νηΐ θοῇ (Il. 1: 389); with
the instrument, σὺν σκήπτρῳ (I. 2:42); with their
commission that empowers them to act, and with the

129 The Greck Prepositions.

results of their action, good or bad. There is nothing
necessarily co-ordinate or like, as in the things brought
together by μετά. Here there may be the widest dis-
parity; men may act σὺν τῷ θεῷ, with God, under
his guidance, with his help. With pera, however,
the things or persons brought together are so far of a
sort that they are capable of participation in some-
thing. We have instanced sleep, food, and drink.
I]. 24:400, Weth the others I cast lots, τῶν μέτα
παλλόμενος, that is, participating in the chances and
danger, glory of the service (Soph. Phil.), when
Achilles was, μετὰ ζώντων, with living men—shared
their lot (Il. 13: 700), μετὰ Βοιωτῶν ἐμάχοντο, they
were fighting with the Boeotians—among them, on
their side, sharing their chances of the battle. Fi-
nally we read in Plat. Phaed. of the soul of the good
man puritied from passions so as forever after truly
to live with God, μετὰ θεῶν διάγουσα, in the language
of the New Testament, to become partaker of the
divine nature. We see how widely this differs from
the idea expressed by σὺν τοῖς θεοῖς, and by what
steps we have come to the discrimination.

209. After verbs of motion μετὰ means to go
among, to go for, or after, so as to secure one’s pres-
ence; finally, to go after without any added implica-
tion. 1]. 3:370,”EXxKe μετ᾽ ᾿Αχαίους, he was dragging
him in among the Achaians. Anab. 1:1, Κῦρον μετα-
πέμεται, he sends for Cyrus.

210. In composition μετὰ often denotes change ;

Διὰ, Through, Across. 123

as μεταβάλλειν, to throw into a different state, μετα-
νοεῖν, to change ones mind. This is not unnatural.
With the idea among in the mind, action suggests
relative change as its necessary condition. The men
on a chess-board travel much; but, as it is all among
themselves, it is brought about only by a change of
relative position.

The compounds with σὺν do not invite special
consideration.

CHAPTER XXI.

διὰ, THROUGH, ACROSS.

211. Tux object of this preposition is thought of
as an obstacle, to be crossed, passed through, or sur-
mounted, as a gate-way, a river, a forest, a mountain
chain, or even a level plain, for distance is of itself
an obstacle. Ava means primarily through from side
to side, not “from one end to the other,” as stated in
the Lexicon. The most interesting thing in crossing
this obstructive space is the getting through it, and
beyond it. The spear inflicted a wound dca θώρακος,
through the breast-plate, διὰ κυνέης, through the hel-
met; it did not begin to fulfill the warrior’s aim till
it had past clean through. The passing quite through
was a prerequisite, or previous condition for doing its

124 The Greek Prepositions.

proper work. Here opens a wide field for the Geni-
tive case.

912. Cyri. Inst. 1:4, The others all had Cyrus on
their tongues, διὰ στόματος. The Greek is more
picturesque than this English ; a name does not
amount to. much till it is spoken—it must come out
through (διὰ) the door of the lips. This last phrase
of Old English fully equals the Greek, which literally
means through and out of, the Genitive denoting the
point of departure—the point from which. Again,
when they see each other, διὰ χρόνου, after a time,
that is, after a temporary separation, the time of the
separation being passed through ; I will come after a
time, διὰ xpovov—the time being passed through.
Anab. 1:8, 16, He heard a noise passing through the
ranks, διὰ τῶν τάξεων. It passed quite through the
ranks, otherwise he would not have heard it. The
Gen. with διὰ denotes the agent. Hdt. 1:69, Croesus
announced this through messengers, Sv ἀγγέλων. By
analogy with the above, it denotes means, definite
measure, singly or in succession, of space, number,
quantity, all flowing by analogy from the primary
meaning of διὰ, through ; as ob διὰ μακροῦ, in no long
time, δι’ ὀλίγου, after a short time; δι’ ἐνιαυτῦυ, after
a year, yearly; to do an act δι᾿ ὀργῆς, through anger,
anger the inciting cause preceding the act; if it be
objected that the anger was not all passed when the
external act took place, it can be said in reply, that
enough had passed to lead to the outward act, and

ἯΙ
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|
A
oS)
ron
a
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ἕ
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: 4

je penn " ὡ ba “σαι
PEIN Ee POS TAPS, A

eo er νυν τὰ ον

Διὰ, Through, Across. 125

~ that is all that concerns the speaker, or the hearer ;
hoping that Sicily would be conquered, δι αὐτοῦ,
through him as the instrument, or agent (Thue. 6: 15).

Aes. Pro. 281, ὡς μάθητε διὰ τέλους τὸ πᾶν, that
you may learn the whole to the very end; the Greek
is picturesque beyond the power of the English; διὰ
τέλους, through the end, to the end and beyond.

213. Hdt. 9:18, Mardonius refrained from ravag-
ing Attica, ἐλπίζων διὰ παντὸς Tov χρόνου ὁμολογήσειν
σφέας, hoping all the while that the Athenians would
come to an agreement; the phrase διὰ παντός, ete.,
means through all the tume, that is, through all the
periods successively of this time of doubt about the
Athenians, and the endeavor to win and hold them
to the Persian side. Mardonius did not begin to
plunder and destroy till all that time was expired.
The first act of destroying was after the last moment
of waiting and expectation; hence the Genitive case
is a necessity, it gives a true copy of what is in the
mind.

214. Of the two limits of the thing crossed, the
hither and the farther limit, we have treated the
farther one as the more emphatic; because the ex-
perience at that point is the more important experi-
ence. Any one may enter a forest wishing to go
through it—may begin to cross a mountain—may go
so far, at least, in crossing a river as to get into it.
But things that require no effort to do, and which
amount to nothing when done, do not furnish much

126 The Greek Prepositions.

material for speech. Without dwelling, then, on the
nearer limit, it remains to consider the space inter-
vening between the two limits of the thing crossed
or passed over. And, first, we observe that this in-
tervening space offers to the imagination no fixed
point or place of rest. Therefore, as the Dative is
the proper case to mark fixed position in space, there
seems to be no chance for the Dative case to come in
and play its part after the preposition διὰ ; and so, in
fact, we never find it; the fact agrees with our antic-
ipations, and both conform to the nature of the case.
Grammarians did not decide this question, but nature
and spontaneous thought settled it before gramma-
rians were born.

215. The single point left, then, for consideration,
is the passage through the intervening space; what
characterized that passage, in itself considered; what
happened in and along that passage that appeals to
the imagination, and so is worthy of mention? If
there was anything of this sort in the speaker’s mind,
he would show that fact by putting the object of dua
in the Accusative case; for that is the case naturally
expressive of distance passed over. This brings us to
διὰ with the Accusative.

216. In examining διὰ with the Accusative, we
are met at the outset with the statement in the Lex.:
“Ava of Place, only in Poets, the same sense as dua w.
Gen.” Before accepting so discouraging a statement,
let us examine the passages adduced in proof. 1].

Διὰ, Through, Across. 127

1: 941, ἕξ δὲ διὰ πτύχας ἢλθε δαΐζων χαλκὸς ἀτειρής.
And through six folds went cleaving its way the un-
yielding spear. What did it do then? It stopped;
but in the seventh fold of hide it stuck, ἐν τῇ δ᾽ ἐβδο-
μάτῃ ῥινῷ oxéro; it did not get clean through at all—
of course it did not accomplish anything after getting
through, which it must have done in order to justify
the use of the genitive (see the foregoing examples.)
But, though the spear did not go through, it did a
great work—it drove its way through the bronze
plate, and through six folds of hide. The mighty
force of the throw was expended in the space be-
tween the front and the back of the shield; and the
poet suits the word to the fact by putting the object
of διὰ in the Accusative case.

217. Second example (Il. 11 : 112-119), describing
the hind fleeing before the lion who has devoured her
fawns, she speeds away in terror, dua δρυμὰ πυκνὰ καὶ
ὕλην, through the thick coppice and woods. The
picture shows us what took place within the limits
of the forest, not of an escape through and beyond
it, for there was no escape. The accusative fits the
word to the thought; the genitive would have de-
stroyed the picture. So in II. 23 : 122, in felling the
trees for Patroclus’s funeral pyre, and dragging them,
διὰ ρωπήϊα πυκνὰ, through the thick underwood ; the
interest of the action centers on what is going on
within the woods. Od. 9:400, The Cyclops dwelt
about him in the caves, δι ἄκριας ἠνεμοέσσας, along

128 The Greek Prepositions.

the windy heights. The genitive here would give us
no picture.

218. Cyri. Inst. 1:6, By reason of those pious
observances of yours, διά ye ἐκείνας τὰς ἐπιμελείας,
you will approach the gods more hopefully when you
are going to pray; that is, the consciousness of his
pious conduct is like an atmosphere of hope about
him as he goes to offer his prayers. Od. 8: 520, He
conquered by grace of Athene the great-hearted, διὰ
μεγάθυμον ᾿Αθήνην. The goddess is thought of as a
surrounding, or accompanying presence, “ covering
his head in the day of battle.” Cyri. Inst. 1:5, Those
fond of praise are won by commendation, and for this
reason, διὰ τοῦτο, they readily undergo all toil and all
danger. Their fondness of praise is a permanent
quality, or atmosphere, if you please, in which they
always move, whereas διὰ τόυτου would mean by
means of this—giving the picture of something tran-
sient, as means to an end.

219. The idea of two suggested by διὰ is not al-
ways the Aither and farther side of a thing struck
through or pierced, as when a spear pierces through
a breast-plate; it may be the right and left portions
of something struck through with a cleaving blow—
as when one with an axe cuts in two, διακόπτει, the
bar of a door, or gate (Anab. 7:1, 17). One or the
other of these forms of thought may be looked for in
words compounded with διὰ ; διαγγέλλειν, to announce,
as from man to man; distinguished from ἀπαγγέλλειν,

Διὰ, Through, Across. 129

which announces something of known and felt im-
portance ; from παραγγέλλειν, to announce by au-
thority, while ἐξαγγέλλειν is to announce a secret ;
προσαγγέλλειν, to announce in expectation of a re-
sponse. Lucian Di. De. 9:

Posrmon. Could I have a short interview with
Zeus, Hermes ?

Hermes. Quite impossible!

Posrmon. But at least announce me to him, ὅμως
προσάγγειλον αὐτῷ : in modern phrase, take up my
name, or card, to him. This act of announcement
looks for a response, and πρὸς attaches itself to the
verb to mark that fact.

220. Aipéw, to take, seize, gain for one’s self;
διαιρέξιν, to strike assunder, to separate into two parts.
Κελεύειν, to urge, incite, command ; διακελεύεσθαι, to
encourage each other, to incite, man by man. Aéyeo-
θαι, to receive, take, accept; διαδέχεσθαι, to receive
and pass on to another, as men standing in a line may
receive and pass along buckets of water to extinguish
_ a fire; as hunters with fresh horses keep up the pur-
suit of an animal; ἀναδέχεσθαι, καταδέχεσθαι (see
Sec. 80).

221. Διακρίνειν, to discriminate between two. Luc.
Di. De. 26, ἐγὼ οὐκ ἂν διακρίναιμι αὐτοὺς, 7) could not
discriminate between them ; i. e., between Castor and
Pollux. Διαγινώσκειν, to tell one from the other ;
same Dial., [lds διαγινώσκεις, how do you know them
apart ? τὸν to escape by fleeing through

150 The Greek Prepositions.

dangers; the thought often is of a succession of dan-
gers on the right and left, through which the fugitive
makes his escape.

222. Διαχειρεῖν, to do, or take in hand, one’s part
where two are acting, as to take an oar to match one
who rows on the other side of the boat. Cyrus, Inst.
1, when a boy, would try to do a man’s work, δια-
χειροίη τὰ ἀνδρός, i. 6., on seeing what a man did, he
would be emulous to match him, and do the same.

ἜἘπιχειρεῖν means something like this, but the
difference is clear. 70 try to walk fifty miles in a
day—an attempt in which one may fail—is ἐπιχειρεῖν ;
to try to keep up with another, walking by his side,
is διαχειρεῖν.

Nore, Sec. 103.

A collection of individual things may be formed by bringing them
beside each other horizontally—a relation in space suggested by ἔο,
near to, beside ; Gr. πρὸς, Lat. ad, in its primary suggestion of hori-
zontal motion. If, however, the collection is thought of as if made by
heaping the things on each other, the preposition in Gr. would be ἐπὶ
—each thing resting on what was there before as its basis. If now
we translate this spatial relation into English by any of the terms Zo,
near to, beside, in addition to, the words do not conform strictly to the
mental picture; we use a locution drawn from a different form of
thought. It may be the most convenient, and the best we can find,
but it is not exact. With πρὸς each particular of the collection is
merely brought into nearness to others; the particulars come into no
new relation but this, in the process; and they lose nothing of their

Διὰ, Through, Across. 131

severalty by it. With ἐπὶ the case is different. The particulars of
the accumulated mass lose, to the imagination, something of their
severalty by the fact that they are made contributary to the formation
of anew whole. They are also in a new relation, for each particular
of the pile is now either a supporter of others, or is supported by
them. Hence the statement that ἐπὶ does not properly carry the
meaning besides, in addition to.

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Hadley’s Greek Grammar. Revised and in part rewritten, by
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12mo. 385 pages.

D, APPLETON & CO., Publishers,
NEW YORK BOSTON CHICAGO SAN FRANCISCO.

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